Issue BriefOctober 2025U.S.AIStatecraftFrom Gulf Deals to an International FrameworkAuthorPablo Chav.
2025-10-27
46页
5星级
2025APJeCRIMELANDSCAPEREPORT 2CROWDSTRIKE 2025 APJ eCRIME LANDSCAPE REPORTTable of Contents Executiv.
2025-10-27
18页
5星级
State of Cybersecurity 2025Global Update on Workforce Efforts,Resources,and Cybersecurity Operations.
2025-10-27
33页
5星级
year legal member firm name,a jurisdiction legal structure and a member firm of the KPMG global org.
2025-10-27
43页
5星级
1 1 0 AI Agent Bible:The ultimate guide to agent disruption AI Agent Bible The AI agent landscape i.
2025-10-27
69页
5星级
Understanding the EU AIAct:Requirements and NextSteps 2024 ISACA.All rights reserved.EmergingTechnol.
2025-10-27
20页
5星级
The New AI Imperative in ManufacturingHow the new wave of AI is disrupting manufacturing operations,.
2025-10-27
41页
5星级
Ericsson White PaperBCSS-25:024439October 2025White paper AI agents in the telecommunication network.
2025-10-24
24页
5星级
Global Cyber Threat Intelligence(CTI)Mid-year cyber threat trends 2025Publish date:September 2025|Co.
2025-10-24
16页
5星级
Artificial Intelligence and the Labour Market in KoreaArtificial Intelligence and the Labour Market in KoreaArtificial Intelligence and the Labour Market in KoreaThis work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD and the President of the KoreaLabor Institute.The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views ofthe Member countries of the OECD or of the Korea Labor Institute.The names and representation of countries and territories used in this joint publication follow the practice of the OECD.This document,as well as any data and map included herein,are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty overany territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Please cite this publication as:OECD/Korea Labor Institute(2025),Artificial Intelligence and the Labour Market in Korea,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/68ab1a5a-en.ISBN 978-92-64-85645-5(print)ISBN 978-92-64-41590-4(PDF)ISBN 978-92-64-93169-5(HTML)Photo credits:Cover Gorodenkoff/S.Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found at:https:/www.oecd.org/en/publications/support/corrigenda.html.OECD/Korea Labor Institute 2025 Attribution 4.0 International(CC BY 4.0)This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence.By using this work,you accept to be bound by the terms of this licence(https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).Attribution you must cite the work.Translations you must cite the original work,identify changes to the original and add the following text:In the event of any discrepancy between the original work and the translation,only the text of original work should be considered valid.Adaptations you must cite the original work and add the following text:This is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD and the Korea Labor Institute.The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this adaptation should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries or of the Korea Labor Institute.Third-party material the licence does not apply to third-party material in the work.If using such material,you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any claims of infringement.You must not use the OECDs or the Korea Labor Institutes respective logo,visual identity or cover image without express permission or suggest the OECD or the Korea Labor Institute endorse your use of the work.Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the Permanent Court of Arbitration(PCA)Arbitration Rules 2012.The seat of arbitration shall be Paris(France).The number of arbitrators shall be one.3 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Foreword As the general purpose technology of our time,Artificial Intelligence(AI)is expected to profoundly change all aspects of our life,including work.The technology is rapidly evolving and is increasingly making its way into the workplace,bringing promises of increased productivity and improvements in job quality,amongst others.The question is not so much whether AI should be used at work,but rather how,so that its benefits can be maximised,while managing some of the risks such as:job automation,invasions of privacy,bias and discrimination,and increased work pressure and stress,to name just a few.The evidence suggests that policies and institutions matter to making a success of AI,including:training and social dialogue,but also clear and proportionate regulation.In this series of country reviews,the OECD analyses the impact AI is having on a countrys labour market from an internationally comparative perspective,and also takes stock of that countrys policies and institutions,against the backdrop of the OECD AI Principles for trustworthy AI.These country reviews aim to help policymakers better understand the risks and opportunities,and offer them a menu of options to help workers and employers make a success of AI,drawing on examples and best practice from across the OECD.In addition,by providing an in-depth analysis of a particular country,these reviews allow policymakers from across the OECD to draw lessons from the experience of a specific country to inform their own policies and institutions.4 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Acknowledgements This report was prepared jointly by the OECD(Stijn Broecke and Carla Ruggiu)and the Korea Labor Institute(Hyeongjun Bang and Seri No),with contributions from Yongjin Nho(Seoul National University of Science and Technology)and Hwanoong Lee(Konkuk University).Valuable comments were provided by Glenda Quintini,Head of the Skills and Future Readiness Division at the Employment,Labour and Social Affairs Directorate of the OECD.The OECD acknowledges the support of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea and KLI the support of the National Research Council for Economics,Humanities and Social Sciences.The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this report do not necessarily reflect the official views of these two organisations nor those of the Member countries of the OECD or of the Korea Labor Institute.5 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Table of contents Foreword 3 Acknowledgements 4 Abbreviations and acronyms 7 Executive summary 9 1 Overview 11 Koreas population is ageing,threatening economic growth 11 Artificial Intelligence could be part of the solution,but adoption in Korea is still low 12 To encourage adoption,AI should be safe and trustworthy 13 Social dialogue can facilitate the AI transition 14 Investing in skills will be critical to make a success of AI 16 Special support should be provided to SMEs 17 References 18 2 The impact of AI on the labour market 20 In Brief 21 The impact of AI on job quantity and skills:Evidence from OECD countries 23 The impact of AI on job quantity and skills:Evidence from Korea 30 The impact of AI on job quality:Evidence from OECD countries 46 The Impact of AI on job quality:Evidence from Korea 49 The impact of AI on inclusiveness:Evidence from OECD countries 53 The impact of AI on inclusiveness:Evidence from Korea 59 References 62 Notes 69 3 Seizing the opportunities and managing the risks:The policy response to AI 70 In Brief 71 Review of international developments on AI policy and regulation 73 Recent regulatory and policy developments in Korea 90 References 102 Notes 107 6 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 FIGURES Figure 1.1.Korea is projected to have the largest decline in working age population in the OECD by 2060 11 Figure 1.2.AI adoption in SMEs is lower in Korea than in other countries 13 Figure 1.3.The majority of firms in Korea do not have guidelines for the use of AI 14 Figure 1.4.Few workers in Korea say their employer consults unions or councils on the adoption of AI 15 Figure 1.5.SMEs in Korea are positive about the impact of generative AI 18 Figure 2.1.White collar occupations are more exposed to AI than occupations requiring manual skills and strength 24 Figure 2.2.Currently,most Korean firms only invest a small share of sales revenue in AI,and even planned investment in AI by Korean firms is relatively low 30 Figure 2.3.Nearly 1 in 3 Korean workers uses AI 1 to 2 times a day 31 Figure 2.4.Full automation of tasks by AI is rare in Korea 35 Figure 2.5.Few Korean SMEs report an impact of generative AI on staffing needs 37 Figure 2.6.The vast majority of firms in Korea say that AI only replaces up to 10%of tasks 38 Figure 2.7.Firms in Korea report increases in the kinds and levels of skills required following AI adoption 40 Figure 2.8.Generative AI increases the demand for skills in SMEs,including in Korea 41 Figure 2.9.AI increases the frequency of communication within firms in Korea 42 Figure 2.10.Nearly one in four firms in Korea say AI has helped them address labour shortages 43 Figure 2.11.Generative AI has helped some Korean SMEs compensate for worker shortage or lack of skills 43 Figure 2.12.Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults 45 Figure 2.13.Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults,by educational attainment and age 45 Figure 2.14.Less than half of firms in Korea say they have provided training for workers to work with AI 46 Figure 2.15.According to firms and employees,AI improves productivity,performance,and job satisfaction 51 Figure 2.16.Most workers disagree that AI reduced physical labour intensity and mental stress 52 Figure 2.17.Adoption of generative AI increases with firm size 55 Figure 2.18.The most reported barrier among Korean SMEs is a lack of skills among employees 56 Figure 3.1.Nearly one in two workers say their employers provide training to work with AI 76 Figure 3.2.Employers cite a lack of skills as a major barrier to adopting AI 77 Figure 3.3.Workers who say their employer consults them about the adoption of new technologies are more positive about the impact of AI on their jobs 79 Figure 3.4.Two in five workers in Korea say their employers are not being transparent about the use of AI in the workplace 93 Figure 3.5.AI-driven matching in Koreas Work24 95 TABLES Table 2.1.The impact of AI on full-time,permanent employment in Korea:Regression results 34 Table 2.2.The impact of AI on the wages of full-time,permanent employees in Korea:Regression results 50 Table 2.3.The impact of AI on full-time,permanent employment growth in Korea:Regression results by gender,age and skill level 60 Table 2.4.The impact of AI on full-time,permanent wage growth in Korea:Regression results by gender,age and skill level 61 7 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Abbreviations and acronyms ADS Automated Decision System AEDT Automated Employment Decision Tool AI Artificial Intelligence AIDA Artificial Intelligence and Data Act(Canada)AIOE AI Occupational Exposure EAPS Economically Active Population Survey EU European Union FTA Free Trade Agreement GDPR General Data Protection Regulation GPT General Purpose Technology HR Human Resources ICT Information and Communications Technologies KLI Korea Labor Institute KSIC Korean Standard Industrial Classification LLM Large Language Model NTC National Training Card OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PES Public Employment Service PIAAC Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies PIPA Personal Information Protection Act 8 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 R&D Research and Development SME Small and Medium-sized Enterprise STEM Science,Technology,Engineering and Mathematics TFP Total Factor Productivity UK United Kingdom US United States 9 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Executive summary The Korean fertility rate has fallen to the lowest in the world and the population is set to halve over the next six decades.The old-age dependency ratio is projected to surge,putting considerable strain on the labour supply which,in turn,could threaten long-term productivity and economic growth.While AI will not solve this challenge by itself,it may help boost productivity and address skills shortages resulting from an ageing workforce.By automating tasks that humans do,AI could help address skills shortages.Labour productivity could be improved if workers are augmented by these new technologies,allowing companies to do more with less.However,adoption of AI in Korea remains low by international standards:only 31%of SMEs in Korea are using AI,compared to over 50%in Germany yet the share of employment in SMEs in Korea is particularly high(over 80%).A lack of skills is cited by Korean SMEs as the most important barrier to AI adoption.Indeed,30%of adults in Korea have no or limited experience with computers or lack confidence in their ability to use them.In addition,the use of AI in the workplace is increasing demand for high-level skills(including data analysis and interpretation)and social skills.Korea already has a range of programmes in place to promote AI-related education and training,however the brain drain of AI talent continues to be a major challenge.To successfully address skills issues related to AI,it will be important that Korea:promotes more on-the-job learning;ensures that training programmes are tailored to the needs of SMEs;and co-ordinates effectively between ministries.To achieve the latter,Korea may want to consider setting up a specialised,overarching AI agency to align AI education and training policies with industrial policies.In order to promote adoption and use,AI will also need to be safe and trustworthy.Korea is only the second country in the world,after the EU,to adopt comprehensive AI legislation,which aims to simultaneously boost innovation and trust in AI.However,specific guidance on the use of AI in the workplace is currently lacking in Korea and there may be a need to develop more specific guidance for employers on issues such as:data protection and privacy in the workplace;bias and discrimination;automated decision making and algorithmic management practices;transparency;explainability;and accountability.In some cases,regulatory changes may need to be considered too.While automation through AI could help address skills and labour shortage,it could also result in job losses for some workers.Across the OECD,there is little evidence so far of a negative impact of AI on aggregate employment.However,this report presents some new analysis,first-of-its-kind in that it distinguishes between types of AI,and which shows that in Korea some forms of more“traditional”AI appear to be associated with lower employment growth in full-time,permanent jobs for youth,low-and medium-educated workers,as well as in the manufacturing sector.This suggests that the benefits and risks of AI may not be equally distributed,and Korean policymakers will need to make sure that no groups are left behind.10 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Social dialogue,social protection and re-employment services can play an important role in supporting workers through the transition.In particular,access to social protection for workers in non-standard forms of work in Korea could be strengthened.With regards to social dialogue,worker consultation appears less common in Korea than in other OECD countries.While the Korean Labour Standard Act stipulates that employers need to consult workers when they intend to alter the rules of employment in a way that is unfavourable to employees(i.e.leads to a deterioration in working conditions),it is not clear in practice whether this law would apply in the case of AI adoption in the workplace.Finally,Korea already uses AI in the provision of employment services and counselling to job seekers(Work24),thereby improving labour market matching,but services could further tailored to the specific needs of SMEs and job seekers.11 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Koreas population is ageing,threatening economic growth Fertility has been declining in OECD countries,including in Korea which now has the lowest fertility rate in the world(OECD,20241).At the same time,people are living longer:life expectancy at birth exceeds 80 years in more than two-thirds of OECD countries,with Korea once again towards the top of the ranking(83.6 years).These opposing trends in fertility and longevity mean people are getting older.Across the OECD,the old-age dependency ratio,defined as the ratio of seniors to the working-age population,has increased from 19%in 1980 to 31%in 2023,and it is projected to increase further to 52%by 2060(above 75%in Korea).At the same time,the working-age population in the OECD is projected to decline by 8tween 2023 and 2060and by up to 46%in Korea(Figure 1.1)(OECD,20252).Figure 1.1.Korea is projected to have the largest decline in working age population in the OECD by 2060 Projected percentage change in the working age population(aged 20-64 years),2023-2060 Note:The medium scenario of the population projections is used.OECD:Weighted average of OECD countries.Source:Secretariats calculations based on United Nations(2024),World Population Prospects 2024,https:/population.un.org/wpp/.-60%-50%-40%-30%-20%-10%0 0%1 Overview 12 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Without further policy action or changes in behaviour these trends will weigh significantly on economic growth and the capacity of OECD countries to maintain their living standards.In most countries,a combination of boosting migration,closing the gender gap in employment,and raising the employment rates of old-age people,would be sufficient to avoid a fall in the employment-to-population ratio(OECD,20252).Additional interventions will be needed if Korea wants to maintain living standards.Artificial Intelligence could be part of the solution,but adoption in Korea is still low Artificial Intelligence(AI)(see Box 1.1)could help reverse at least part of the drop in GDP growth resulting from population ageing.AI is a new General Purpose Technology(GPT),comparable to earlier digital technologies such as the internet and personal computers,or previous breakthrough innovations like the steam engine and electricity.These past inventions have led to periods of accelerated economic growth.Similarly,it has been estimated that AI could result in growth in total-factor productivity of between 0.25-0.6 percentage points(p.p.)per year(0.4-0.9 p.p.for labour productivity)(Filippucci,Gal and Schief,20243).In addition,through its impact on automation,AI could help address skills and labour shortages(OECD,20252),and it could help extend working lives by improving the quality of jobs(OECD,20234).Box 1.1.What is Artificial Intelligence?The OECD defines an AI system as“a machine-based system that,for explicit or implicit objectives,infers,from the input it receives,how to generate outputs such as predictions,content,recommendations,or decisions that can influence physical or virtual environments.Different AI systems vary in their levels of autonomy and adaptiveness after deployment”(OECD,20245).AI can be seen as a General-Purpose Technology(GPT)(Brynjolfsson,Rock and Syverson,20176).GPTs are characterised by their pervasiveness,inherent potential for technical improvements and innovational complementarities(Bresnahan and Trajtenberg,19927).AI has the potential to be pervasive,impacting a broad variety of sectors and occupations.Not only does it improve over time through the expertise of inventors or developers,but also by learning on its own from data and its past predictions.Furthermore,it has the capability to spawn complementary innovations.The applications of AI are wide-ranging.Wherever large amounts of data are available,AI has the potential to improve decision making and reduce costs.AI is used in workplaces for various tasks,including coding,drafting emails,improving written text,generating summaries,and translating content.In human resources,AI streamlines recruitment by screening resumes and matching candidates.In marketing and advertising,AI enables personalised content creation and optimises ad targeting.In finance,AI enhances fraud detection and improves financial forecasting.In manufacturing,AI-powered robotics assist production,while predictive maintenance helps prevent equipment failures.However,adoption of AI in Korea remains low,with estimates ranging from 6.4%to 30.3%(Han,20238;NIA,20259;KOSIS,202510).Evidence from a new OECD survey shows that adoption of AI by SMEs(250 employees)in Korea(31%)is higher than in Japan(27%),but considerably lower than in some other OECD countries,such as Austria(42%),Ireland(45%)and Germany(51%)(Figure 1.2).Yet the share of employment in SMEs in Korea is particularly high(over 80%).13 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Figure 1.2.AI adoption in SMEs is lower in Korea than in other countries Percentage of SMEs reporting usage of generative AI or other forms of AI Source:OECD(202511),Microdata from the OECD SME Survey on Generative AI.To encourage adoption,AI should be safe and trustworthy While AI has the potential to bring many benefits,including to the workplace,employers will be hesitant to adopt AI,and workers reluctant to use it,if the risks are not adequately addressed,including risks to:worker safety and health,data protection and privacy,as well as bias and discrimination.Korea is only the second country in the world,after the EU,to adopt comprehensive AI legislation.The Basic Act on the Development of Artificial Intelligence and the Establishment of Trust(“AI Basic Act”henceforth)was approved in January 2025 and will be enforced from January 2026 onwards.The AI Basic Act refers to the need to“minimise risks and build trust”.The AI Basic Act covers important principles such as transparency and explainability,as well as safety and reliability of AI.Firms using“high-impact AI”will be expected to provide users with advance notice.They will also need to:develop and implement a risk management plan,a user protection plan,ensure human supervision and oversight,and maintain documentation on safety and reliability measures although details on how this should be done are still left open.Korea also has comprehensive data protection legislation.The Personal Information Protection Act(PIPA)offers similar rights and protections as the GDPR in the EU,including in the case of fully automated decisions where the PIPA,unlike the GDPR,specifically mentions the use of AI.When personal data is collected and processed,the consent of individuals is required.While the meaningfulness of consent in the context of an employer-employee relationship has been questioned,given the power imbalance between the two parties,in Korea,an interesting solution to this challenge appears to have been found:if there is a trade union(labour union)in the workplace,consent is deemed to be given when the union agrees,while in workplaces without unions,the condition is met when more than half of all workers express their agreement.50.844.641.839.834.731.326.538.50 0P%Germany Ireland Austria Canada UK Korea Japan Total14 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Despite these legislative efforts,Koreas approach to regulating AI is based more on principles than on detailed prescriptions and regulations.This may encourage innovation,but it also makes enforcement more difficult.The AI Basic Act is deliberately less restrictive than the EU AI Act and aims to combine ethical AI and safe practices with domestic innovation.While the EU AI Act is closer to a product safety regulation,the AI Basic Act contains strong elements of an industrial policy.Other principles,like the guarantee of human rights,and bias and discrimination,are not included in the AI Basic Act but are covered by the Korea Guidelines for Ethical Standards of Artificial Intelligence instead.Going forward,it will be important to develop specific guidance on the use of AI in the workplace.Indeed,while some companies in Korea(26.2%)have developed their own guidelines for the use of AI,the majority have not(Figure 1.3).The AI Basic Act defines“high-impact AI”,similar to“high-risk AI”in the EU AI Act.However,the use of AI in employment(a high-risk case in the EU AI Act)is only alluded to briefly in the AI Basic Act when it mentions AI that involves“Judgment or evaluation that has a significant impact on an individuals rights and obligations,such as hiring.”It is not clear,therefore,to what extent some of the AI Basic Act would apply to situations in the workplace other than hiring,nor what steps employers should take to ensure the safe and trustworthy use of AI.Figure 1.3.The majority of firms in Korea do not have guidelines for the use of AI Percentage of firms reporting the existence of guidelines,by sector and firm size Note:The survey targeted firms that use AI,focussing on industries classified under the Korean Standard Industrial Classification(KSIC),specifically:Manufacturing,Information and communication,Professional scientific and technical service,Healthcare.Only firms that utilise AI and have 10 or more employees were included in the survey.HR managers and AI developers provided the survey responses.The survey was conducted over a two-month period,from 20 October 2024 to 31 December 2024.The survey covered a population of 9 625 establishments,including 3 292 in manufacturing,3 118 in information and communication,1 788 in professional and scientific services,and 790 in healthcare.The sample was drawn using a random sampling method,with a target sample size of 200.Ultimately,the study achieved valid responses from 145 firms,whose data were incorporated into the final analysis.Source:Survey on AI Utilisation and Labour Market Changes conducted by the Korea Labor Institute(2024).Social dialogue can facilitate the AI transition In translating the above laws and principles into practical guidelines in the workplace,social dialogue will be critical.OECD research has shown that social dialogue and collective bargaining can play a key role in supporting workers and firms in the AI transition,and in fostering fair and dynamic labour markets(OECD,20234),and also that the outcomes for workers when AI is adopted in the workplace are better when employers consult them about the use of AI(Lane,Williams and Broecke,202312).37.012.531.017.624.633.30%5 %05E%Information andCommunicationProfessional,Scientific,andTechnical ServicesManufacturingHealth and SocialWork299 or fewer300 or moreIndustryFirm size 15 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 At the national level,social dialogue in Korea is still in its infancy.Discussions on AI and technology issues take place in the National Artificial Intelligence Commission,which is composed of ministers,heads of public institutions,academics,and presidents of technology companies however there is no specific focus on the labour market.The latter topic is discussed separately in the Economic,Social and Labour Council,which recently launched the“AI and Labour Research Association”,composed of worker and employer representatives,officials from the ministries of labour and Industry,as well as professors and researchers.At company level,the Labour Standard Act stipulates that employers in Korea need the consent from workers(from the union if there is one,if not from the majority of workers)when they intend to alter the rules of employment in a way that is unfavourable to employees(i.e.leads to a deterioration in working conditions).However,there is uncertainty surrounding how AI adoption impact working conditions and what this means for the obligation of employers to consult workers.In practice,worker consultation on AI adoption in Korea appears limited.A survey of workers in Korea showed that 56.3%were not involved in discussions around AI adoption in their workplace and only 6.9%said their firms engaged in discussions with unions or labour management councils(Figure 1.4).As expected,these discussions are far more common in large firms.In the few cases where workers were consulted,the most common topics covered were:AIs impact on the number of jobs,changes in specific occupations,emerging training needs,and methods of data collection and use.A case from Korea further illustrates how the involvement of workers in AI adoption and maintenance appears limited(Box 1.2).Figure 1.4.Few workers in Korea say their employer consults unions or councils on the adoption of AI Percentage of employees saying employers consult unions or councils on AI adoption,by firm size Note:“Yes”indicates that a labour union or works council exists and is consulted.“No”indicates that a labour union or works council exists but is not consulted.“None”indicates that no labour union or works council exists.The survey targeted individual employees who use AI in firms operating within four industries classified under the Korean Standard Industrial Classification(KSIC):Manufacturing,Information and Communication,Professional,Scientific and Technical Services,and Healthcare.Employees using AI provided the survey responses.The survey was conducted over a two-month period,from 20 October 2024 to 31 December 2024.The sample was drawn using a random sampling method,with a target sample size of 600.Ultimately,the study achieved valid responses from 426 employees,whose data were incorporated into the final analysis.Source:Survey on AI Utilisation and Labour Market Changes conducted by the Korea Labor Institute(2024).3.422.26.946.674.151.750.03.741.40 0Pp0)9 or fewer300 or moreTotalYesNoNone16 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Box 1.2.Case study:AI adoption processes in an electronic parts manufacturer in Korea A firm producing multilayer ceramic capacitors(MLCC),power inductors,chip resistors,tantalum,camera and IT modules,semiconductor package substrates,and others,applies AI to the quality inspection of finished products in the MLCC production process.As product quality is a key competitive factor in the MLCC market,strict quality control is essential.To address yield losses caused by the limitations of visual inspections conducted by human workers,the firm introduced an AI model.At the AI development stage,production workers contribute minimally to AI development,while AI developers and manufacturing technology team members play dominant roles.The production workers were expected to provide domain knowledge to aid in AI development,but instead,some manufacturing technology team members,who possess high domain expertise and extensive work experience,took on this role.As a result,the production workers had little involvement in AI development.At the improvement stage,AI developers again dominate the process of re-teaching AI.As the data used for AI training drifts over time,due to changes in product designs or work methods,regular re-learning of AI is necessary.AI for machinery-operating tasks is updated daily,while AI for product quality inspection is updated weekly.Interestingly,the re-learning process is automated within the AI algorithm itself.As a result,production workers play a very limited role in AI improvement.During the AI use stage,AI tends to replace human labour in this firm,leaving little room for workers to contribute.The adoption of AI led to the downsizing of hundreds of workers in the quality inspection processes.Most of the affected workers were from subcontractors,while directly employed workers were reassigned to other roles.The machinery-operating processes also face downsizing,with just two workers now handling jobs that previously required dozens of employees.Additionally,two-thirds of clerical workers who perform simple tasks are expected to be made redundant in the future.However,the firm has been growing rapidly,and AI adoption has not yet led to overall redundancy but rather slowed the increase in the workforce.Notably,new plants were recently built at each of the two domestic factories.Investing in skills will be critical to make a success of AI A lack of skills can be a significant barrier to AI adoption and use.Indeed,the greatest barrier to adoption cited by SMEs that have not adopted generative AI in Korea,is a lack of skills among employees(cited by 53%)(OECD,202511).These findings are consistent with research for other countries,which showed that 40%of employers in the manufacturing and finance sectors said that skills were a barrier to AI adoption(Lane,Williams and Broecke,202312).At the same time,workers in these same sectors who say they have been trained to work with AI are considerably more positive about the impact of AI on their performance,enjoyment of work,and mental and physical health than workers who did not receive such training(Lane,Williams and Broecke,202312).In addition,Korea faces a challenge in retaining AI talent reflecting a wider brain drain issue which can be traced back to the 1950s,with high-skilled workers seeking better job opportunities and higher living standards abroad.While the Korean Government has introduced AI-focussed education and vocational training programmes,the shortage of AI experts has been persistent with intensified competition and a surge in global demand for AI professionals.This threatens technological progress and productivity growth.It is therefore encouraging to see the AI Basic Act mention the importance of skills.It stipulates that a“basic”plan will have to be elaborated every three years by the Minister of Science and ICT which must cover:“Matters related to training professional manpower for systematic fostering of the artificial 17 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 intelligence industry”.The AI Basic Act also states that“The Minister of Science and ICT shall train and support professional manpower related to artificial intelligence.”Korea already has several publicly funded education and training programmes to develop AI skills,including K-Digital Training,a vocational training initiative that aims to provide high-skilled workers in digital and edge-tech industries and which,so far,has benefited over 5 000 participants in more than 200 courses.However,going forward,the Korean Government should:promote more on-the-job learning;ensure that training programmes are tailored to the needs of SMEs;and co-ordinate effectively between ministries.To achieve the latter,Korea may want to set up a specialised,overarching AI agency to co-ordinate AI education and training(Ministry of Labour and Employment)and industrial policies(Ministry of Trade,Industry and Energy).It will be important to ensure that training does not focus only on AI technical skills required for developing and maintaining AI,but also on more general skills required to work with AI.Indeed,most workers will be exposed to AI in the workplace,without necessarily needing such technical skills(Green,202413).In this respect,the K-Digital Beginner-level Skill Training,which provides beginner-level digital skills to participants,is a promising programme,although its coverage is currently limited(22 000 participants)compared to the number of workers who will be exposed to AI at work.Article 4 of the EU AI Act,which requires providers and deployers of AI systems to ensure a sufficient level of AI literacy of their staff and other persons dealing with AI systems on their behalf,may also serve as inspiration to Korean policymakers.Special support should be provided to SMEs Boosting AI adoption among SMEs in Korea could result in significant economic gains,particularly given the large share of employment that they represent.The productivity of SMEs in Korea is only about one-third of that of large companies(compared to around half in other OECD countries)(OECD,20241)and AI adoption is also significantly lower among SMEs than it is among larger firms:27.4%in firms with 50 to 249 employees,compared to 63.3%in firms with more than 250 employees(NIA,20259).At the same time,SMEs that use AI in Korea are very positive about its impact:nearly half of the SMEs experiencing skills shortages believe that generative AI has helped address them,4 in 5 say it has increased employee performance,and around 2 in 5 say it has saved money,increased revenue,and helped them compete against larger companies(Figure 1.5).18 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Figure 1.5.SMEs in Korea are positive about the impact of generative AI Percentage of SMEs reporting generative AI helped the company Note:The total reflects the combined results from all countries participating in the survey(Austria,Canada,Germany,Ireland,Japan,Korea,the United Kingdom).Source:OECD(202511),Microdata from the OECD SME Survey on Generative AI.It is encouraging to see the AI Basic Act mention“education support related to the introduction and utilisation of artificial intelligence technology for employees of small and medium-sized enterprises”as well as“support for funds used for the introduction and use of artificial intelligence technology by small and medium-sized enterprises.”At the same time,Korea should ensure that such support goes hand-in-hand with efforts to consolidate the various other forms of support and protections for SMEs,to reduce the risk that these policies lock resources into low-productive uses and thereby hold back overall productivity(OECD,20241).References Bresnahan,T.and M.Trajtenberg(1992),“General Purpose Technologies“Engines of Growth?”,https:/doi.org/10.3386/W4148.7 Brynjolfsson,E.,D.Rock and C.Syverson(2017),“Artificial Intelligence and the Modern Productivity Paradox:A Clash of Expectations and Statistics”,National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series,https:/doi.org/10.3386/w24001(accessed on 25 July 2024).6 Filippucci,F.,P.Gal and M.Schief(2024),“Miracle or Myth?Assessing the macroeconomic productivity gains from Artificial Intelligence”,OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers,No.29,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/b524a072-en.3 Green,A.(2024),“Artificial intelligence and the changing demand for skills in the labour market”,OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers,No.14,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/88684e36-en.13 38.748.264.842.077.942.10 0Pp%Increase revenuePerform tasks thatcould not beperformed beforeOffer new products orservicesSave moneyImprove employeeperformanceCompete with largercompaniesTotalKorea 19 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Han,J.(2023),(The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on the Labor Market and Policy Implications),Korea Development Institute(KDI),https:/doi.org/10.2139/SSRN.4890349.8 KOSIS(2025),Survey of Business Activities 2023-Technology Development and Utilization:Artificial Intelligence,https:/kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?sso=ok&returnurl=https:/kosis.kr:443/statHtml/statHtml.do?list_id=J2_7_300_009&obj_var_id=&seqNo=&tblId=DT_1EP1337_1&vw_cd=MT_ZTITLE&orgId=101&path=%2FstatisticsList%2FstatisticsListIndex.do&conn_path=MT_ZTITLE&itm_id=&lang_mode=ko&scrId=&(accessed on 18 June 2025).10 Lane,M.,M.Williams and S.Broecke(2023),“The impact of AI on the workplace:Main findings from the OECD AI surveys of employers and workers”,OECD Social,Employment and Migration Working Papers,No.288,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/ea0a0fe1-en.12 NIA(2025),2024 Yearbook of Enterprise Informatization Statistics,National Information Society Agency and Ministry of Science and ICT,Republic of Korea,https:/eng.nia.or.kr/site/nia_eng/ex/bbs/View.do;jsessionid=34AFDD692F3F88105EC7F1B30DE3B071.7cc30ba5eea206361634?cbIdx=31975&bcIdx=27694&parentSeq=27694(accessed on 25 April 2025).9 OECD(2025),“Microdata from the OECD SME Survey on Generative AI”.11 OECD(2025),OECD Employment Outlook 2025:Can We Get Through the Demographic Crunch?,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/194a947b-en.2 OECD(2024),“Explanatory memorandum on the updated OECD definition of an AI system”,OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers,No.8,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/623da898-en.5 OECD(2024),OECD Economic Surveys:Korea 2024,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/c243e16a-en.1 OECD(2023),OECD Employment Outlook 2023:Artificial Intelligence and the Labour Market,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/08785bba-en.4 20 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 While most OECD economies are still in the early phases of AI adoption,the technology is expected to have a profound impact on the world of work.This chapter explores the evidence from across the OECD as well as from Korea on how AI has so far affected:job quantity and skills,job quality,and inclusiveness in the labour market.So far,there is little evidence of a negative impact on the number of jobs,although some groups are more affected than others.AI holds promise to improve job quality,but there are risks too.Moreover,these risks and benefits of AI are not equally distributed across population sub-groups.2 The impact of AI on the labour market 21 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 In Brief The impact of AI on job quantity and skills AI has made the most progress in non-routine,cognitive tasks.Therefore,the occupations most exposed to AI tend to be white-collar occupations,such as IT professionals,business professionals,managers,and science and engineering professionals.However,high exposure to AI does not necessarily imply workers in these occupations will be displaced.So far,across OECD countries,there is little evidence of negative aggregate employment outcomes due to AI.In Korea,there is some evidence that over the period 2018 to 2023,more“traditional”AI was associated with lower growth in full-time,permanent jobs,particularly in the manufacturing sector.However,no such relationship was found for generative AI.These findings need to be interpreted in a context of 2.4%employment growth in full-time,permanent jobs overall during the same period,as well as 5.8%growth in total employment(including non-standard forms of work).In addition,in a survey of Korean firms,95.5%report no workforce changes so far at the department-or team-level following the adoption of AI.These limited effects on job automation suggest that,by itself,AI will not solve labour shortages in Korea.However,AI can help mitigate them.For instance,of the 37%Korean SMEs reporting a worker shortage in the last two years,27%say that generative AI helps compensate for these shortages.Similarly,24%of Korean SMEs report a lack of skills and experience among staff,and 47%of these say that generative AI helps to address this challenge.While AI may not automate jobs at large scale,it does change the tasks workers do and the skills required of them.56.5%of Korean firms that have adopted AI say it has replaced specific tasks within existing jobs.Moreover,32.2%say the use of AI has resulted in an increase in the kinds of skills required to carry out current tasks,and 38.3%say that AI has increased the level of skills required.Firms in Korea that have adopted AI are more likely to report an increase in communication among team members(18.4%v.7.1%),percentage),with managers(19.1%v.7.1%),as well as between teams(27%v.7.8%).For Korean SMEs,AI increases the importance of data analysis and interpretation skills increases the most,followed by programming and coding skills.The changing skills needs resulting from the adoption of AI in the workplace call for new training opportunities.This is particularly important in the context of the continued brain train from Korea,including of AI talent.However,Participation in adult learning in Korea is the lowest across OECD countries:13%,compared to an OECD average of 40%.While firms in Korea do provide training to employees for working with AI,only 42%of those that have adopted AI have done so,and the share is higher in large firms than it is in small ones.The impact of AI on job quality Wages are a key dimension of job quality.If AI boosts productivity then it could result in higher wages for workers.In OECD countries,the wage benefits of AI have so far been concentrated among high-income and highly skilled workers.Similarly,in Korea,only the occupations most exposed to generative AI have benefited from higher wage growth.22 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 AI could improve job quality in other ways as well.The automation of tedious and repetitive tasks could improve job enjoyment and allow workers to focus on more complex and interesting tasks.AI could also improve physical safety by automating dangerous tasks and improving monitoring systems and safety procedure controls.At the same time,there are some risks too.For example,case study evidence from OECD countries shows instances of increased work intensity due to higher performance targets or complexity induced by AI.Ultimately,the effect of AI on the work environment depends on how thoughtfully and strategically it is integrated into workplace practices.In Korea,AI appears to improve job satisfaction.However,there is a gap between the perceptions of firms and employees,with the former being more positive than the latter.In addition,many workers in Korea particularly those in smaller firms and the manufacturing sector report no noticeable reduction in either physical or mental burden following the adoption of AI.One possible explanation is that AI adoption in Korea is still in its early stages,and its potential to ease work intensity has not yet fully materialised.The impact of AI on inclusiveness Workers vary in the extent to which they are exposed to AI,but also in their ability to adapt to and benefit from new technologies.Thus the impact of AI need not be uniform across different socio-demographic groups.So far,the evidence from OECD countries suggests that high-income and high-skilled workers benefit the most from AI,while low-skilled workers may lose out.For example,the impact of AI on employment growth has been found to be significant and positive for high-income and high-skilled occupations,and for jobs where computer use is high.Similarly,high-income and high-skilled occupations,as well as jobs with high computer use,tend to experience positive effects on wage growth associated with AI exposure,while lower income and lower skilled workers do not seem to benefit in the same way,or less so.In Korea,the negative impact of traditional AI on regular,full-time employment growth appears to be concentrated among younger workers,low-to medium-skilled workers and women although for the latter,as well as for high-skilled workers,higher exposure to generative AI is associated with higher employment growth.Furthermore,generative AI is associated with higher wage growth for men and high-skilled workers,while traditional AI is associated with higher wage growth for older workers and high-skilled workers.By contrast,traditional AI appears to reduce wage growth for low-skilled workers.These findings apply to full-time,permanent employees only,and the findings for non-standard workers may be different.23 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 The impact of AI on job quantity and skills:Evidence from OECD countries AI has made the most progress in non-routine cognitive tasks,therefore affecting mostly white-collar occupations Recent advances in AI have extended the types of tasks that can be automated to non-routine,cognitive tasks,exposing workers who were previously relatively protected from the risk of automation(e.g.the high-skilled).In the past,computers and robots followed strict rules set by programmers and therefore could only automate routine tasks,affecting mostly low-and medium-skilled workers(Autor,Levy and Murnane,20031).As of 2023,AI has exceeded human performance across various tasks.It outperformed human baselines in image classification1 as early as 2015,basic and medium-level reading comprehension in 2017 and 2018 respectively,visual reasoning2 in 2020 and natural language inference3 in 2021(Maslej et al.,20242).Advancements in Natural Language Processing(NLP),and in particular in Large Language Models(LLM),enable applications like Generative AI to perform a wide range of language and cognitive tasks,often at a level comparable to humans and much faster.Generative AI refers to AI systems capable of creating new content based on patterns learned from existing data.For instance,ChatGPT,Gemini,or HyperCLOVA X in Korea,can write poems,computer code,and essays,compose music,and explain complex scientific ideas to a broader audience.When evaluated against answers given by experts on different questions,ChatGPT performance has been assessed as good as that of a team of experts(Guo et al.,20233).AI can now answer around 80%of the literacy and two-thirds of the numeracy questions included in the OECD Survey of Adult Skills of the Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies(PIAAC).Comparing these results to those of the adults performing the tests highlights the potential for AI to outperform large portions of the adult population in reading and mathematics.Experts predict that increasing investments in AI research and development,in particular in NLP,will lead to further significant advancements of AI in both reading and mathematics over the coming years(OECD,20234).Important progress has also been made in AIs ability to replicate psychomotor abilities,specifically:the ability to work in cramped workspace,finger dexterity and manual dexterity.Finger dexterity refers to the ability to make precisely co-ordinated movements of the fingers to grasp,manipulate,or assemble very small objects.Manual dexterity,by contrast,is the ability to quickly move the hand,the hand together with the arm,or the two hands to grasp,manipulate,or assemble objects.Older technologies,such as robots,are being improved through the integration of AI(Lassbie and Quintini,20225).AI has made the least progress in physical abilities such as static,dynamic,and trunk strength.4 These are tasks more common in non-cognitive,non-routine occupations such as dancers,athletes,bricklayers,and farm workers.5 There are also other skills and abilities that humans still have a comparative advantage in,such as negotiation,social perceptiveness,assisting and caring for others,originality,and persuasion.Bringing people together and reconciling different views,understanding why people react a certain way,or providing emotional support,all remain complicated tasks for machines to perform(Georgieff and Hyee,20216;Lassbie and Quintini,20225).As of 2023,AI fails to exceed human ability also in some more complex cognitive tasks,such as visual commonsense reasoning6 and advanced level mathematical problem solving(Maslej et al.,20242).Measures of AI exposure,such as the one constructed by Felten,Raj and Seamans(20217),evaluate the overlap between the abilities required in an occupation and the technical capabilities of AI.The occupations most exposed to AI are white-collar occupations,which are most likely to involve non-routine cognitive tasks requiring formal training and/or tertiary education,such as IT professionals,business professionals,managers,and science and engineering professionals.Occupations requiring manual skills and strength,such as cleaners,agricultural forestry and fishery labourers,food preparation assistants and labourers,24 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 are the least exposed to AI(Figure 2.1)(Lane,20248;Georgieff and Hyee,20216).Focusing on generative AI,Eloundou et al.(20239)observe that most occupations exhibit some degree of exposure to LLMs.Occupations with higher wages and information processing industries exhibit high exposure,while manufacturing,agriculture,and mining industries demonstrate lower exposure(Eloundou et al.,20239).Felten,Raj and Seamans(202310)also find that occupations with higher wages are more likely to be exposed to rapid advances in language modelling,and that education and legal service sectors exhibit higher exposure.Box 2.1 presents data on AI adoption based on survey results.Figure 2.1.White collar occupations are more exposed to AI than occupations requiring manual skills and strength Average AI exposure by occupations,2022 Source:Average AI exposure scores retrieved from Lane(20248),“Who will be the workers most affected by AI?:A closer look at the impact of AI on women,low-skilled workers and other groups”,https:/doi.org/10.1787/14dc6f89-en.00.20.40.60.81Cleaners,helpersAgricultural forestry,fishery labourersFood preparation assistantsLabourersRefuse workers,other elementary workersB.Five least exposed occupations00.20.40.60.81Science,engineering professionalsChief executivesManagersBusiness professionalsIT technology professionalsA.Five most exposed occupations 25 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 So far,in OECD countries,AI seems to have had no significant negative impact on overall employment High exposure to AI does not necessarily imply workers in these occupations will be displaced.Theoretically,there are various channels through which the introduction of AI in the workplace could impact labour demand.Firstly,AI can substitute workers by automating tasks previously performed by human labour(displacement effect).Secondly,as some tasks are automated and AI can complement workers helping them perform tasks more efficiently,productivity increases and costs are reduced.This leads to lower quality-adjusted prices,potentially increasing product/service demand and,consequently,the demand for workers essential in the production process(productivity effect).Lastly,AI can create new tasks and jobs,particularly in AI development and maintenance(reinstatement effect).Therefore,the overall effect of AI on labour demand is theoretically ambiguous and depends on which effects dominate(Acemoglu and Restrepo,201913).To understand the impact of AI on aggregate employment empirical research is needed.So far,across OECD countries,there is little evidence of negative aggregate employment outcomes due to AI.Instead,there appears to be a slight positive relationship between AI exposure and employment growth,suggesting that AI may be creating more jobs than it is destroying.At the same time,specific AI technologies could have different,and in some cases negative,impacts.What most studies highlight,is that while more jobs may be impacted by AI,very few are at risk of disappearing entirely.Most occupations involve a combination of skills and abilities that can and cannot be automated.Even highly impacted occupations are unlikely to be fully replaced by automation.Instead,work may need to be organised differently,and workers in these roles may require retraining as technology takes over certain tasks(Lassbie and Quintini,20225).Case studies carried out by the OECD in the finance and manufacturing sectors of 8 OECD countries7 in 2022 showed that for 23%of the firms interviewed,AI technologies reduced the number of jobs in the most affected occupations.However,most firms managed these reductions by reallocating workers within the company or through attrition,keeping employees until they either left voluntarily or retired.In addition,firms often opted to slow hiring instead of implementing job cuts,using this approach as a safeguard against the Box 2.1.AI Adoption:Evidence form surveys AI is increasingly recognised as a transformative technology with the potential to significantly impact workplaces.As a result,there is growing interest in understanding how widely these technologies are adopted by companies.According to Information and Communication Technology(ICT)surveys conducted by National Statistical Offices in 2024,the average AI adoption rate across OECD countries is 14%.Adoption rates vary by firm size.On average across OECD countries,40%of large firms use AI,compared to 20%of medium-sized firms and just 12%of small firms(OECD,202511).For some countries,the latest available data predate the release of ChatGPT and other forms of generative AI.If more recent data were available for these countries,the average OECD AI adoption rate would likely be higher.While European surveys benefit from standardised questions that facilitate cross-country comparisons,surveys from other regions often differ in design and definitions,posing challenges to comparability.New data on AI adoption in SMEs(small and medium-sized enterprises)has emerged from an OECD survey conducted between October and December 2024 examining the impact of generative AI on SMEs labour and skill needs(OECD,202512).The results highlight significant cross-country differences in AI adoption by SMEs,ranging from 27%in Japan to 51%in Germany.Korea is on the lower end of the scale,with 31%of SMEs saying theyve adopted AI(Figure 1.2).26 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 potential failure or underperformance of AI solutions(Milanez,202314).This is consistent with the finding by Acemoglu et al.(202215)that firms more exposed to AI reduce their overall hiring.Only a handful of studies,exploiting variation in AI adoption across US commuting zones,have found a negative effect of AI exposure on employment overall(Huang,202416;Bonfiglioli et al.,202517).The majority(77%)of the firms participating in the aforementioned case studies reported no impact on the quantity of jobs for workers most affected by AI technologies.Half of these firms implemented AI technologies to boost production volumes or improve product or service quality,rather than to reduce labour costs.For the other half,the implementation of AI led to the reorganisation of jobs,with workers displaced from certain tasks reassigned to other existing or new tasks.In some cases,AI technologies automated tasks that constituted only a minor share of workers jobs,thus not leading to displacement.In other cases,job reorganisation affected more substantial shares of workers tasks.However,these jobs were not eliminated,and the automation of certain tasks allowed workers to focus on more complex tasks that could not yet be automated(Milanez,202314).Additionally,83%of SMEs report that the use of generative AI has had no effect on the overall number of staff they need(OECD,202512).Similarly,several studies do not find a significant relationship between AI exposure and aggregate employment(Felten,Raj and Seamans,201918;Georgieff and Hyee,20216;Acemoglu et al.,202215).However,it is possible that significant impacts on aggregate economic data only become detectable once the technology is widely adopted and the necessary complementary processes and assets are developed(Brynjolfsson,Rock and Syverson,201719;Acemoglu et al.,202215;Lane,20248).Studies by Albanesi et al.(202320)and Lane(20248)have found a small,positive and statistically significant effect of AI exposure on aggregate employment,although direct causality is difficult to prove.The positive association between AI exposure and employment could be due to a productivity effect,or because AI creates new jobs directly.Green and Lamby(202321)find that employment growth for the AI workforce,defined as workers with the skills necessary to develop and maintain AI systems,is strong.On average employment growth was 63%for the AI workforce between 2017 and 2019although this workforce is still relatively small,representing less than 0.3%of workers overall.Acemoglu et al.(202215)also find a rapid take-off of AI vacancy postings starting in 2010 and accelerating around 2015-2016.Moreover,in 30%of the OECD case studies,interviewees noted that employment was increasing in occupations related to the development and maintenance of AI(Milanez,202314).AI could help mitigate labour shortages Labour shortages are becoming a critical concern across many OECD countries.Labour market tightness,measured as the number of vacancies per unemployed person,has eased in the last quarter of 2023 but continues to exceed pre-COVID-19 levels in many countries(OECD,202422).Population ageing is a significant factor contributing to this challenge.As the workforce shrinks and demand for services like healthcare grows,innovative solutions are needed to avoid significant skills and labour shortages.AI could help address these challenges by automating tasks and by enhancing worker productivity,enabling a more efficient use of resources,and making organisations better equipped to manage with a reduced workforce.AI could also support healthcare professionals by,for example,serving as a documentation assistant reducing the time spent on administrative tasks,or by assisting radiologists in scanning medical images,freeing up time for doctors to spend on care(Anderson and Sutherland,202423).Furthermore,AI could help extend working lives and increase the labour market participation of the elderly.Many physically demanding jobs can lead to muscular-skeletal problems,but AI could be used to protect workers from injury,enabling them to remain employed longer.For example,the company German Autowerks invested in AI to analyse videos of mechanics at work,identifying pressure points and potential problem areas on the body.This information was then used to select specific exoskeletons which make heavy tasks much easier to perform.The company opted not to automate these tasks,believing that 27 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 humans are more flexible and adaptable to changing job requirements.Instead,they focussed on using AI to assist workers,helping them work for longer(Machin,202424).Despite the potential of AI to address challenges associated with labour shortages,it can only be part of a wider package of solutions to tackle these issues.Even if AI,particularly since the advent of Large Language Models,could be applied to a substantial share of tasks done by workers(Eloundou et al.,20239),there are still tasks AI cannot do(or that society would not find acceptable for AI to do)and it cannot therefore fully replace workers(Lassbie and Quintini,20225).In addition,while several experimental studies show that AI could significantly enhance worker productivity in certain tasks(see section on Equalisation of performance within occupations below),the extent of this impact on aggregate productivity remains a topic of debate.This uncertainty is reflected in the productivity paradox,which refers to the lag in productivity growth over the past decade despite advancements in AI and other technologies.One possible explanation is that the aggregate productivity gains from AI might be modest(Acemoglu,202425).Alternatively,delays in AI implementation and organisational restructuring could mean that substantial economic gains from AI may take years or even decades to materialise(Lane and Saint-Martin,202126).In OECD countries,AI has increased the need for new skills,including specialised AI and analytical skills The integration of AI into the workforce has expanded the demand for specialised AI skills needed for the development and maintenance of AI systems.However,these positions still only represent a small fraction of total employment(Green and Lamby,202321).Most workers will have to interact with AI applications which often feature user-friendly interfaces,requiring only basic digital skills.The demand for skills complementary to AI such as cognitive,management,social,and digital skills appears to be increasing overall,while that for routine skills might decrease.Nonetheless,research also suggests these increases might not be related to AI per se,and AI exposure might be associated with a fall in demand for some of those skills.The demand for AI skills in the labour market is increasing.Using data on skill requirements in online vacancies,Alekseeva et al.(202127)show that the demand for these skills quadrupled over the period 2010 to 2019.The skills most demanded in AI vacancies are machine learning,natural language processing,deep learning,image processing,programming languages like Python,and big data management(Alekseeva et al.,202127;Manca,202328;Squicciarini and Nachtigall,202129).These skills will be needed not only to design algorithms,but also to explain their functioning to non-technical professionals,and to monitor outcomes to make sure that AI systems are operating as intended,detecting mistakes and potential biases,and addressing any unintended consequences(Wilson,Daugherty and Morini-Bianzino,201730).Job postings that require specialised AI skills also tend to ask for high-level cognitive skills such as creative problem solving,social skills and management skills(project and people management),suggesting that these skills are complementary to AI.Conversely,these jobs typically do not require routine skills,like general administrative and clerical skills.As a result,an increase in AI-related employment is likely to drive demand for high-level cognitive skills while decreasing demand for routine skills(Alekseeva et al.,202127;Manca,202328).Nonetheless,most workers who will interact with AI may not need AI-specific skills or a deep understanding of AI systems.A survey of AI start-ups found that only 10%required users of their AI products to have expert coding or data skills,while 59%required only general computer familiarity,and the remainder required no specialised skills at all(Bessen et al.,202331).In many cases,AI adoption has not yet significantly changed skill requirements within firms.In 2022,57%and 48%of firms that had adopted AI in finance and manufacturing,respectively,reported no change in skill needs(Lane,Williams and Broecke,202332).Similarly,in case studies of firms having implemented AI in finance and manufacturing,60%of firms said that AI adoption had not yet modified skill requirements 28 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 (Milanez,202314).This could be partly because AI adoption at the time of those studies was still relatively low and many firms were only experimenting with the technology,but also because interacting with AI applications often requires only basic digital skills,such as the ability to use a computer or smartphone,relying on existing skills.That being said,40%of the firms interviewed as part of the above-mentioned case studies reported a need for new skills,including specialised AI skills and analytical skills.As simple tasks become automated,the proportion of complex tasks performed by workers rises,necessitating specialised knowledge and advanced analytical skills,such as the ability to comprehend and apply new ideas(Milanez,202314).Managers using algorithmic management software report that the use of such tools mostly increases their need for the ability to use or interpret data,and for digital skills(Milanez,Lemmens and Ruggiu,202533).Employers also say that,while AI has increased the importance of specialised AI skills,it has increased the importance of human skills,such as creativity and communication,even more,as well as the need for highly educated workers more generally(Lane,Williams and Broecke,202332).Green(202434)shows that occupations with high AI exposure predominantly demand management,business processes,social and digital skills,with the largest increase in demand for skills related to collaboration,originality,and basic office tools.At the same time,there is tentative evidence of a relative decline in the demand for management,business process,cognitive,digital,emotional and communication skills in workplaces that are highly exposed to AI(Green,202434).These skills are the skills of white-collar support occupations:finance,human resources,legal,communications,administrative assistants and project managers.These effects are modest and should be viewed as relative changes amidst an overall increase in demand for most of these skills in the aggregate(Green,202434).In addition,however,managers using algorithmic management tools are more likely to report decreases in human interactions than increases.In the European countries surveyed,8 managers were also more likely to believe that the use of such tools was decreasing managers need for empathy rather than increasing it(Milanez,Lemmens and Ruggiu,202533).These findings point to an additional concern,which is the potential deskilling of the workforce as a result of AI adoption.The case studies carried out by the OECD in the manufacturing and finances sectors of eight OECD countries documented some instances of deskilling,where the machine performed the skilled tasks,and the worker was only required to operate a very intuitive system,with no judgment involved(Milanez,202314).Most OECD countries will need to ramp up training provision to address AI-induced skills demand The changing skills needs resulting from the adoption of AI in the workplace call for new training opportunities.While initial education plays a crucial role in equipping workers with the skills to work with AI,upskilling and reskilling the existing workforce will be equally important to help individuals adapt and prepare for the transition(OECD,202435).Older adults and lower skilled workers in particular will need to acquire basic digital skills essential for interacting with AI technologies.Meanwhile,managers and business leaders require training to efficiently organise the integration of AI into their operations.More than half of workers who use AI in the manufacturing and finance sectors said that their company had either provided or funded training so that they could work with AI.Yet,more training would help address existing barriers to AI adoption,considering that around 40%of employers in those sectors declared that the lack of relevant skills was a barrier to AI adoption(Lane,Williams and Broecke,202332).When the AI technology is simple to use,training can be brief and take the form of webinars,presentations,or workshops(Milanez,202314).In a small number of case studies,large firms operated more ambitious training programmes to help employees transition to other occupations.Some large companies try to grow AI talent in-house instead of seeking those employees on the external labour market.However,several 29 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 firms call for more government funding for AI education and training,recognising that these specialised AI skills should also be developed in initial education(Milanez,202314).Initial education plays a crucial role in acquiring the skills necessary to develop and maintain AI systems,with two-thirds of the AI workforce holding a tertiary degree.The share of AI workers who report having participated in some sort of training in the last four weeks is similar to that of the entire population with a tertiary degree(16%and 18%,respectively).Most of the training that the AI workforce undertakes is non-technical in nature.Nonetheless,workers who have skills closely related to AI skills may acquire more explicit AI skills simply by being part of a research team or the AI development process within their firms(Green and Lamby,202321).Lower-skilled and older workers are less likely to possess the basic digital skills required in a workplace transformed by the adoption of AI.Based on the Survey of Adult Skills,that tests adults in basic information processing skills,around one in four adults(aged 16-65)have no or only limited experience with computers or lack confidence in their ability to use them.Additionally,nearly half of all adults can only use familiar applications to solve problems involving few steps and explicit criteria,such as sorting emails into pre-existing folders.Among low-educated adults,41%lack basic proficiency in using information and communications technology(ICT)to even take the surveys test,and those who can undertake the test perform poorly.The percentage of adults without basic ICT skills decreases to 15%for those with upper secondary education and 4%for those with tertiary education.Compared to younger adults(aged 25-34)older adults(aged 55-65)are significantly more likely to have no computer experience and lower scores.Among young adults,8%have no computer experience and 43%perform well.In contrast,34%of older adults have no computer experience,and only 10.3%perform well(OECD,201936).Moreover,older and lower-skilled adults,as well as low-wage workers,are less likely to take part in adult learning in every single country participating in the Survey of Adult Skills.Considering that around half of all adults neither participate nor want to participate in adult learning,it will be crucial to find effective ways to address barriers and motivation to training participation(OECD,201937).For example,the provision of more flexible learning options(e.g.part-time study or online delivery)would allow learners to better balance training alongside work or other commitments(OECD,202435).Managers also need training to effectively organise the integration of AI into their operations.They need to understand AI systems to assess where and how innovation can be utilised within the company,identify the benefits and risks of AI,and determine the best ways to integrate AI systems into existing processes.Managers would have to decide which tasks are better performed by AI systems and which by humans,recognising the strengths and weaknesses of each(OECD,202338).A German insurance provider reported that managers planning AI projects are expected to have a minimum knowledge of how the technology works(Milanez,202314).In the OECD survey on algorithmic management in the workplace(202533),75%of managers report their firms offer training on how to use the software.Training for managers could enhance their proficiency with specific tools,deepen their understanding of the data used by these tools,and ensure their skills keep pace with the growing demand for analytical capabilities.Additionally,it could help them use software in a trustworthy manner(Milanez,Lemmens and Ruggiu,202533).Encouragingly,several OECD countries have developed dedicated AI training strategies(OECD,202435).Many have introduced incentives to support employers in providing training for their employees.Fourteen governments have invested in publicly funded AI training programmes,with nine focussed on developing AI professionals and seven aimed at enhancing AI literacy for the general public.More broadly,publicly funded digital skills training,without an explicit focus on AI,is more common(OECD,202435).30 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 The impact of AI on job quantity and skills:Evidence from Korea The adoption and use of AI in the workplace in Korea is lower than in other countries The adoption of AI in Korea appears low compared to other OECD countries(9.9%in 2024 from Han(202339),6.35%in 2023 from 2024 Survey of Business Activities(KOSIS,202540),30.3%in 2023 from the 2024 Enterprise Informatization Statistics(NIA,202541)and see Figure 1.2)and firms appear to take a cautious stance towards AI,as shown by their investments in AI(Box 2.2).Box 2.2.Firm investment in AI in Korea The majority of firms that participated in the Survey on AI Utilisation and Labour Market Changes conducted by the Korea Labor Institute invest 5%or less of their sales revenue in AI development(Figure 2.2,Panel A).Among the companies that indicated they would increase AI investment in the future,a majority(55.3%)reported that their investment would be limited to 5%or less of their total sales revenue,suggesting a cautious stance on AI development expenditures in Korea(Figure 2.2,Panel B).This stance toward AI is due to concerns about the maturity of the technology and uncertain returns.Many firms prefer a gradual and incremental approach.Figure 2.2.Currently,most Korean firms only invest a small share of sales revenue in AI,and even planned investment in AI by Korean firms is relatively low Percentage of firms reporting investment of 5%or less(of sales revenue),6-10%,11-20%and 21%or more Note:The survey targeted firms that use AI,focussing on industries classified under the Korean Standard Industrial Classification(KSIC),specifically:Manufacturing,Information and communication,Professional scientific and technical service,Healthcare.Only firms that utilise AI and have 10 or more employees were included in the survey.HR managers and AI developers provided the survey responses.The survey was conducted over a two-month period,from 20 October 2024 to 31 December 2024.The survey covered a population of 9 625 establishments,including 3 292 in manufacturing,3 118 in information and communication,1 788 in professional and scientific services,and 790 in healthcare.The sample was drawn using a random sampling method,with a target sample size of 200.Ultimately,the study achieved valid responses from 145 firms,whose data were incorporated into the final analysis.Source:Survey on AI Utilisation and Labour Market Changes conducted by the Korea Labor Institute(2024).67.626.94.11.40 0Pp%5%or fewer6-10-20!%or more(A)Current investment55.330.98.55.30 0Pp%5%or fewer6-10-20!%or more(B)Planned investment 31 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Even if AI is adopted by organisations in Korea,that does not mean that employees use it frequently.34.5%of workers who use AI,use it once or twice a week,while 32.2%used it once or twice a day(Figure 2.3).According to the Survey on AI Utilisation and Labour Market Changes conducted by the Korea Labor Institute as well as qualitative evidence,employees within the same team or department differ significantly in how frequently and intensively they use AI.AI users typically begin experimenting with the technology out of curiosity.As they gain experience,they become more comfortable and gradually expand their use of AI across various tasks.Users emphasise that AI reduces the time and effort needed to visualise design concepts,allowing for greater efficiency.In contrast,non-users tend to avoid engaging with AI altogether.They cite two main reasons:first,they see no meaningful application of AI in their specific tasks;second,they believe their current manual methods are faster and more accurate.This variation in AI adoption,even among employees performing identical work,highlights the importance of understanding individual-level factors that influence technology acceptance in the workplace.Box 2.3 provides a concrete example of this in a publishing firm in Korea.Figure 2.3.Nearly 1 in 3 Korean workers uses AI 1 to 2 times a day Percentage of employees reporting using AI 1-2 times a week,1-2 times every day,1-2 times a day,countless times Note:The survey targeted individual employees who use AI in firms operating within four industries classified under the Korean Standard Industrial Classification(KSIC):Manufacturing,Information and Communication,Professional,Scientific and Technical Services,and Healthcare.Employees using AI provided the survey responses.The survey was conducted over a two-month period,from 20 October 2024 to 31 December 2024.The sample was drawn using a random sampling method,with a target sample size of 600.Ultimately,the study achieved valid responses from 426 employees,whose data were incorporated into the final analysis.Source:Survey on AI Utilisation and Labour Market Changes conducted by the Korea Labor Institute(2024).34.515.332.218.10%5 %05%1-2 times a week1-2 times every 3 days1-2 times a dayUsed countless times32 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Box 2.3.Understanding individual differences in AI adoption within the workplace:Evidence from the use of image-generation AI in a book cover design team A Korean publishing firm employing around 100 people promotes the adoption of AI in the workplace but does not require employees to use it.AI is applied across multiple departments.A notable example is a team responsible for designing book covers,where designers use image-generation AI tools.Even within this team,the level of AI use varies.The team is composed of five designers;two actively use AI,whereas the other three do not.Those who use AI often begin out of curiosity.As they gain experience,they become more comfortable with the tools and gradually expand their use across different tasks.Designers who do not use AI rarely attempt to engage with the technology.AI users emphasise the reduced time and effort required to visualise design concepts.They report that AI enables them to generate images more quickly and efficiently.In contrast,non-users argue that their manual design methods offer superior quality and greater control.While total employment continues to grow in Korea,some forms of more traditional AI appear associated with less growth in full-time,permanent employment So far,in Korea,most research either finds no or a small negative impact of AI on employment overall,and the impact depends on both the type of technology and the industry.Chang et al.(202442)concludes that AI-adopting firms experience productivity gains without reducing employment while Han(202339)finds employment increases in high-skilled jobs and losses in low-skilled jobs.New analysis carried out for this report shows that more“traditional”AI appears to be associated with lower growth in full-time,permanent jobs,concentrated in the manufacturing sector,while there is no such association with generative AI(Box 2.4).In particular,a 10-percentile point increase in exposure to“traditional”AI(Webb,202043)appears to be associated with 5.7%lower growth in full-time,permanent employment.This needs to be interpreted in a context of 2.4%employment growth in full-time,permanent jobs overall during the same period,as well as 5.8%growth in total employment(including non-standard forms of work).33 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Box 2.4.The impact of AI on full-time,permanent employment growth in Korea:New evidence from employment insurance data This box presents new analysis of the impact of AI on employment growth at the occupational level in Korea,spanning the period from 2018 to 2023.The analysis draws on three primary data sources:employment insurance data,exposure indices from the studies of Webb(202043)and Felten et al.(202310),and the routinisation index extracted from the 2020 Korea Dictionary of Occupations,published by the Korea Employment Information Service(202044).Employment insurance data contain detailed individual-level information,including worker demographics(e.g.age,gender,career history),occupation,and wages,as well as information regarding the region,industry,and size of the establishments where individuals are employed.Notably,the employment insurance data include annual information on individual labour market transitions and the diverse characteristics of workplaces.However,as this dataset is specifically used for the administration of employment insurance,it only covers individuals and workplaces enrolled in the scheme.In Korea,employment insurance typically applies only to permanent employees,resulting in a potential bias,as the data predominantly reflects regular,full-time workers(Kwon,202245).According to the Economically Active Population Survey,approximately 25%of employed individuals in Korea were temporary workers as of 2023.Two distinct AI exposure indices were employed:one developed by Webb(202043)and the other by Felten et al.(202310).Webbs(202043)index measures AI exposure by extracting job-related information from AI patents,representing exposure to more“traditional”AI technologies.In contrast,Felten et al.(202310)assess exposure based on the degree to which occupations are affected by AI language modelling capabilities,providing a measure of exposure to generative AI technologies.1 To account for other automation technologies that influence labour demand and supply within occupations,it was necessary to control for their effects,distinct from those of AI.Accordingly,the analysis incorporates software exposure and robot exposure at the occupational level,as calculated by Webb(202043).While existing studies on AI and automation technologies typically focus on the US labour market,variations in occupational structures between countries such as Korea,the US,and EU and its high-income constituent members,can arise due to diverse factors like industrial structure.To control for these potential differences and to reflect the exposure to pre-AI automation technologies within Koreas occupational classification system,a routinisation index was used.This index,first introduced by Kim,Koh and Cho(201446),categorises occupations according to three primary attributes data,people,and“objects”(i.e.the various tangible assets employed during the execution of job duties)based on the 2020 Korea Dictionary of Occupations.2 Each occupation is assigned a score between 0 and 2 for each characteristic,with the highest score determining the final routinisation index.A higher value indicates lower exposure to routinisation,while a lower value suggests greater exposure.For the analysis,raw values of the AI exposure indices,as well as the routinisation index,were converted into percentiles.This approach mitigates potential distortions caused by the clustering of values within the raw indices,facilitating a clearer understanding of the differences in occupational exposure.Consequently,the results focus on changes in the dependent variables in response to shifts in percentiles,rather than the raw values of the indices.Table 2.1 presents the findings of the analysis,which explores the impact of the two AI exposure indices on the growth in full-time,permanent employment in Koreas labour market over the 2018-2023 period.The year 2018 was chosen as the baseline,as AI adoption in Korea was minimal prior to this period.34 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Model(1)controls for various occupational and industry-level characteristics,such as gender ratio,average monthly wages,and age distribution.Model(2)incorporates the software exposure index,while Model(3)includes the robot exposure index.Model(4)further controls for the routinisation index,and Model(5)accounts for trends in the dependent variable prior to the analysis period(2015-2018).Unless otherwise noted,the results discussed herein refer to the outcomes from Model(5).Table 2.1.The impact of AI on full-time,permanent employment in Korea:Regression results (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)Panel A:Impact of Webbs AI Occupational Exposure on Log Employment AIOE Percentile 0.0026 -0.0041-0.0052*-0.0060*-0.0057*(0.0019)(0.0026)(0.0029)(0.0031)(0.0030)Panel B:Impact of Feltens AI Occupational Exposure on Log Employment AIOE Percentile-0.0003 0.0033 0.0052 0.0054 0.0046 (0.0020)(0.0022)(0.0038)(0.0039)(0.0038)Obs.4 633 4 633 4 633 4 633 4 633 Control Variables v v v v v Software Index v v v v Robot Index v v v Routinisation Index v v Pre-Trend(EMP)v Note:AIOE stands for AI Occupational Exposure Standard errors are shown in parentheses,and statistical significance is indicated as follows:*1%,*5%,*10%.Source:Employment insurance data and information provided by Webb(202043),“The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on the Labor Market”,https:/www.michaelwebb.co/webb_ai.pdf;and Felten et al.(202310),“How will Language Modelers like ChatGPT Affect Occupations and Industries?”,https:/doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2303.01157 compiled by the authors.The results show that a 10 percentile point increase in exposure to traditional AI is associated with a 5.7cline in full-time,permanent employment growth,whereas no statistically significant relationship exists for generative AI.Given that there has been a 2.4%increase in permanent employment over this period(2018 to 2023),these findings suggest that there has been employment growth at median levels of exposure to traditional AI,but that this positive effect reduces as exposure rises and that the displacement begins to outweigh the productivity gains at higher levels of exposure to traditional AI.1.Although Felten et al.(201847)also created an index for traditional AI through expert surveys,analyses using this index did not yield results significantly different from those obtained from Webbs exposure index.Therefore,for the purpose of this study,only the Webb and Felten indices are employed to distinguish the impacts of traditional and generative AI technologies on the labour market.2.The 2020 Korea Dictionary of Occupations breaks down each occupation into three characteristics:the use of data,interaction between people,and the use of things.In other words,“objects”collectively refers to the various types of tangible assets employed during the execution of job duties.35 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 At the same time,a recent survey showed that 95.5%of firms in Korea reported no workforce changes at the department-or team-level following the adoption of AI.Case studies carried out in Korea suggest this may be because AI adoption still remains relatively low(see Box 2.5).Among the firms that reported changes in tasks as a result of AI adoption,only 8.4%reported full automation of all tasks in a job(Figure 2.4).In addition,35.1%of firms indicated that AI had been adopted to perform entirely new tasks that had not previously existed within the scope of traditional roles,suggesting that AI adoption may not necessarily be geared towards replacing workers.Figure 2.4.Full automation of tasks by AI is rare in Korea Percentage of firms reporting that AI creates entirely new tasks,partially replaces tasks,or fully replaces tasks in a job Note:The survey targeted firms that use AI,focussing on industries classified under the Korean Standard Industrial Classification(KSIC),specifically:Manufacturing,Information and communication,Professional scientific and technical service,Healthcare.Only firms that utilise AI and have 10 or more employees were included in the survey.HR managers and AI developers provided the survey responses.The survey was conducted over a two-month period,from 20 October 2024 to 31 December 2024.The survey covered a population of 9 625 establishments,including 3 292 in manufacturing,3 118 in information and communication,1 788 in professional and scientific services,and 790 in healthcare.The sample was drawn using a random sampling method,with a target sample size of 200.Ultimately,the study achieved valid responses from 145 firms,whose data were incorporated into the final analysis.Source:Survey on AI Utilisation and Labour Market Changes conducted by the Korea Labor Institute(2024).35.156.68.40 0P%Newly createdPartial task replacedFully replaced36 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Box 2.5.Current and future workforce changes from AI:Evidence from Korean case studies KLI carried out interviews with HR and technology managers from firms using AI within the industries covered by the Survey on AI Utilisation and Labour Market Changes,i.e.:manufacturing(2 interviewees),information and communications(5),healthcare(3),and professional,scientific,and technical services(5).The interviews were conducted over approximately one month,from 24 February 2025 to 26 March 2025,either in person or online,depending on the interviewees preferences.The interviews paint a nuanced picture of AIs impact on automation.While job losses may happen in the future,automation is currently limited partly because of low adoption but also because AI tends to automate only parts of,and not the entire job.Case study 1:Intellectual Property Dispute Resolution One company in Korea has developed an internal AI tool for foreign language translation and utilises an internal version of ChatGPT.The AI tool assists with translating foreign language documents(with 90curacy),searching case law,and drafting legal documents.The implementation of AI has not led to any changes in the teams composition.Employees perceive that AI can perform only about 2 out of 10 tasks in their overall workload.However,as technology advances,they anticipate that fewer team members will be needed for the same tasks in five to six years.Case study 2:Radiology Technologist In the field of pathology,AI adoption is more advanced than in other areas due to the vast amount of accumulated data,allowing for extensive AI training.As a result,AI is more actively utilised in pathology than in any other hospital department.However,one major limitation remains:since organ placement and size vary across patients,achieving consistently accurate results is still challenging.With further technological advancements,AI is expected to not only assist in imaging procedures but also take over diagnostic interpretations.Consequently,the demand for radiologic technologists may decline,as fewer professionals will be required to perform these tasks.Case study 3:Manufacturing Most of the AI models adopted in a manufacturing firm in Korea are used as references for the corresponding production workers.Workers can shut down and inspect the equipment by an alert of an AI to a potential equipment failure.Previously,workers would intuitively detect such failures based on noise,temperature,vibration,or other factors.Now,the AI senses the failure by combining relevant data.If the AI is accurate and reliable,stricter criteria can be set for the failure threshold.If not,looser criteria are used.The strictness of these criteria varies across AI models,but many models in this firm are said to have somewhat loose criteria.This suggests that most AI models are used as references rather than as a judge which completely replaces human labour.It is also worth noting that even in cases where AI replaces human labour,only part of the job(one or two tasks)is replaced,not the entire role.In this sense,AI and human labour work together,and the adoption of AI models rarely affects the overall employment size of the firm.The limited impact of AI on human labour stems primarily from the lower accuracy and reliability of the AI models in this manufacturing firm.Therefore,this does not necessarily mean that AI will not have a negative impact on employment in the future.As AI technology advances,and as the quality and quantity of data improve,AI will become more accurate and reliable.Given the complexity of work processes,the active involvement of production workers as domain knowledge experts is crucial to improving the quality of AI learning outcomes.Data quality and data-handling capabilities remain essential in AI development,even with more advanced AI techniques.However,the involvement of workers in advancing AI further in this firm does not seem to be sufficient.To enhance worker co-operation,management needs to ensure that AI adoption will not negatively affect employment.This is a contradiction,because AI utilisation is typically aimed at reducing labour costs.37 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 In line with the above findings,a recent OECD survey(202512)shows that most Korean SMEs report no effect of generative AI on the overall number of staff(88%),the number of highly skilled staff(85%),or the number of lower skilled staff(87%).Also in line with the findings reported above,among the SMEs that have experienced an impact,firms are more likely to report an increased need for highly skilled workers than a reduction,and more likely to report a reduced need for low-skilled staff than an increase(Figure 2.5)(OECD,202512).Figure 2.5.Few Korean SMEs report an impact of generative AI on staffing needs Percentage of SMEs reporting generative AI has impacted the company staffing needs Note:The total reflects the combined results from all countries participating in the survey(Austria,Canada,Germany,Ireland,Japan,Korea,the United Kingdom).Source:OECD(202512),Microdata from the OECD SME Survey on Generative AI.AI is already changing the tasks that workers do in Korea AI changes the tasks that workers do.In a survey of Korean firms that have adopted AI,56.5%reported that AI replaced specific tasks within existing jobs(rather than automating the entire job)(see Figure 2.5 above).Moreover,71%of Korean firms reported that AI substituted approximately 10%of an employees tasks,and 17.2%reported that AI had not replaced any of their tasks at all(Figure 2.6).5.59.35.56.45.37.2 15%5%0%5%Overall number of staffNumber of highly skilled staffNumber of lower skilled staffTotal-IncreasedTotal-DecreasedKorea-IncreasedKorea-Decreased38 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Figure 2.6.The vast majority of firms in Korea say that AI only replaces up to 10%of tasks Percentage of firms reporting that AI replaces 0%,10%or fewer,11-30%and 31-50%of tasks Note:The survey targeted firms that use AI,focussing on industries classified under the Korean Standard Industrial Classification(KSIC),specifically:Manufacturing,Information and communication,Professional scientific and technical service,Healthcare.Only firms that utilise AI and have 10 or more employees were included in the survey.HR managers and AI developers provided the survey responses.The survey was conducted over a two-month period,from 20 October 2024 to 31 December 2024.The survey covered a population of 9 625 establishments,including 3 292 in manufacturing,3 118 in information and communication,1 788 in professional and scientific services,and 790 in healthcare.The sample was drawn using a random sampling method,with a target sample size of 200.Ultimately,the study achieved valid responses from 145 firms,whose data were incorporated into the final analysis.Source:Survey on AI Utilisation and Labour Market Changes conducted by the Korea Labor Institute(2024).Unlike previous automating technologies,AI can also automate non-routine,cognitive tasks.Case studies of lawyers,physicians and webtoon creators in Korea show that while AI contributes to enhanced efficiency in tasks such as document drafting,diagnostics,and visual rendering,it does not yet fully substitute for human involvement in strategic decision making,interpersonal communication,or creative processes(Box 2.6).17.271.011.00.70 0Pp%0%or fewer11-301-509 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE LABOUR MARKET IN KOREA OECD/KOREA LABOR INSTITUTE 2025 Box 2.6.AI and the automation of tasks of lawyers,physicians and webtoon creators in Korea Between 24 February 2025 and 26 March 2025,KLI carried out interviews with HR and technology managers from firms using AI.These interviews showed how,regardless of the occupation where AI was used,the technology only automated some tasks while leaving other tasks untouched.Case study 1:Lawyers AI is being used to assist with legal document drafting and case law analysis.However,tasks such as legal consultation,courtroom representation,and negotiation still require human expertise.These complex,judgment-based activities remain beyond AIs current capabilities.Case study 2:Physicians AI supports diagnostics,medical testing,and treatment planning in clinical settings.Yet,tasks involving direct patient interaction,complex diagnoses,and surgeries remain firmly in the domain of human professionals.The need for empathy,intuition,and clinical judgment limits AIs role.Case study 3:Webtoon creators AI is used in tasks like storyboard generation,sketching,colouring,and adding special effects.Nonetheless,story development,character design,and audience interaction continue to depend on human creativity.These artistic and narrative aspects resist automation.AI is increasing the demand for high-level and social skills in Korea The changes in tasks brought about by AI will change the demand for skil
2025-10-24
110页
5星级
Master the Unseen:A CIOs Guide toResilient IT and AV in the APAC RegionWhite PaperThe Asia-Pacific r.
2025-10-24
12页
5星级
Report of the Independent Expert Group on2025Artificial Intelligence and CultureCULTAI Independent E.
2025-10-24
80页
5星级
AI in South Korea OpenAIs Economic Blueprint 23 October 2025 Foreword At OpenAI,our mission is to e.
2025-10-24
27页
5星级
The Anthropic Economic Index report:Uneven geographic and enterprise AI adoptionAuthors:Ruth Appel*,.
2025-10-24
47页
5星级
1 AI Compute Sovereignty:Infrastructure Control Across Territories,Cloud Providers,and Accelerators.
2025-10-24
21页
5星级
JOHN TARANGELO,AURELIA ATTAL-JUNCQUA,ELIKA SOMANI,DEREK ROBERTS,KYLE WEBSTERProtecting Biological Ma.
2025-10-24
73页
5星级
GREGORY SMITH,BENJAMIN BOUDREAUX,MICHAEL J.D.VERMEER,JOEL B.PREDDInfinite PotentialInsights from the.
2025-10-24
23页
5星级
October 2025The agentic commerce opportunity:How AI agents are ushering in a new era for consumers a.
2025-10-24
27页
5星级
SPECIAL REPORTKey Trends Shaping the Future of MedTech Startups in APAC and BeyondSPECIAL REPORTThe .
2025-10-23
24页
5星级
十五五规划建议全文（25页）.pdf
三个皮匠报告：2025银发经济生态：中国与全球实践白皮书（150页）.pdf
2025刘润年度演讲PPT：进化的力量.pdf
三个皮匠报告：2025中国情绪消费市场洞察报告（24页）.pdf
清华大学：2025年AIGC发展研究报告4.0版（152页）.pdf
三个皮匠报告：2025中国AI芯片市场洞察报告（24页）.pdf
麦肯锡：2025年人工智能发展态势报告：智能体、创新与转型（英文版）（32页）.pdf
三个皮匠报告：2025中国稀土产业市场洞察报告-从资源到战略武器，中美博弈的稀土战场（25页）.pdf
毕马威：2025年第四季度中国经济观察报告（82页）.pdf
Gartner：2026年十大战略技术趋势报告（28页）.pdf
0731-84720580
商务合作：really158d
友链申请 (QQ)：1737380874
最新报告
中英对照
全文搜索
报告精选
PDF上传翻译
多格式文档互转
入驻&报告售卖
会员权益
机构报告
券商研报
财报库
专题合集
英文报告
数据图表
会议报告
其他资源
研报
新质生产力
DeepSeek
低空经济
大模型
AI Agent
AI Infra
具身智能
自动驾驶
宠物
银发经济
人形机器人
企业出海
算力
微短剧
薪酬
白皮书
创新药
行业分析
个股研究
年报财报
IPO招股书
会议纪要
宏观策略
政策法规
其他
人工智能
信息科技
互联网
消费经济
汽车交通
电商零售
传媒娱乐
医疗健康
投资金融
能源环境
地产建筑
传统产业
英文报告
其它
行业聚焦
芯片产业
热点概念
全球咨询智库
人工智能
500强
新质生产力
会议峰会
新能源汽车
企业年报
互联网
公司研究
行业综观
消费教育
科技通信
医药健康
人力资源
投资金融
汽车产业
物流地产
电子商务
传统产业
传媒营销
其它
2025年养老经济/银发经济/长寿经济/银发族/老龄化报告合集（共50套打包）
2025年商业航天行业报告合集（共41套打包）
AI、科技与通信
广告、传媒与营销
消费、零售与支付
HR、文化与旅游
金融、保险与投资
能源、环境与工业
医疗制药与大健康
物流、地产与建筑
其他行业
AI ▪ 科技 ▪ 通信
数字化
金融财经
智能制造
电商传媒
地产建筑
医疗医学
能源化工
其他行业
收藏
下载
2025-11-19
AI查数
行业数据
政策法规
商业模式
产业链
竞争格局
市场规模
产业概述
其它
2025年
AI读财报
年报
一季报
半年报
三季报
IPO招股书
社会责任报告
A股
IPO申报
港股
美股&全球
新三板
微信扫码登录
手机快捷登录
账号登录
