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1、RENEWABLEENERGY POLICIESFOR CITIESEXPERIENCES IN CHINACHONGLI DISTRICTTONGLI TOWNCopyright IRENA 2021Unless otherwise stated,material in this publication may be freely used,shared,copied,reproduced,printed and/or stored,provided that appropriate acknowledgement is given of IRENA as the source and co
2、pyright holder.Material in this publication that is attributed to third parties may be subject to separate terms of use and restrictions,and appropriate permissions from these third parties may need to be secured before any use of such material.Extracted from:IRENA(2021),Renewable Energy Policies fo
3、r Cities:Experiences in China,Uganda and Costa Rica,International Renewable Energy Agency,Abu Dhabi.ISBN:978-92-9260-312-0About IRENAThe International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA)serves as the principal platform for international co-operation,a centre of excellence,a repository of policy,technolog
4、y,resource and financial knowledge,and a driver of action on the ground to advance the transformation of the global energy system.An intergovernmental organisation established in 2011,IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy,including bioenergy,geot
5、hermal,hydropower,ocean,solar and wind energy,in the pursuit of sustainable development,energy access,energy security and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity.www.irena.orgIKI supportThis project is part of the International Climate Initiative(IKI).The Federal Ministry for the Environment,Natur
6、e Conservation and Nuclear Safety(BMU)supports this initiative on the basis of a decision adopted by the German Bundestag.AcknowledgementsThis report was developed under the guidance of Rabia Ferroukhi(IRENA)and authored by the urban policies team of IRENAs Knowledge,Policy and Finance Centre(Jinlei
7、 Feng,Michael Renner,Celia Garca-Baos(IRENA)and Laura El-Katiri(consultant),with valuable country-based expertise provided by consultant Runqing Hu.Valuable external review was provided by Aijun Qiu(China Centre for Urban Development),Yifan Xu(Energy Foundation China)and Ji Chen(Rocky Mountain Insti
8、tute).Valuable review and feedback were also provided by IRENA colleagues Diala Hawila,Binu Parthan,Yong Chen,Paul Komor and Neil MacDonald.For further information or to provide feedback:publicationsirena.orgAvailable for download:www.irena.org/publicationsDisclaimerThis publication and the material
9、 herein are provided“as is”.All reasonable precautions have been taken by IRENA to verify the reliability of the material in this publication.However,neither IRENA nor any of its officials,agents,data or other third-party content providers provide a warranty of any kind,either expressed or implied,a
10、nd they accept no responsibility or liability for any consequence of use of the publication or material herein.The information contained herein does not necessarily represent the views of the Members of IRENA.The mention of specific companies or certain projects or products does not imply that they
11、are endorsed or recommended by IRENA in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.The designations employed and the presentation of material herein do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of IRENA concerning the legal status of any region,country,territory,city o
12、r area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries.IRENA HeadquartersMasdar CityP.O.Box 236,Abu Dhabi,United Arab Emirateswww.irena.org2 2RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICIES FOR CITIES1 The study is based on desk research and interviews in the case study countries conducted
13、 during 2018 and 2019.ABOUT THIS STUDYWith their great energy demands and their central role in national economies,cities are critical to the worlds overall energy transition.City planners and administrators would therefore do well to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to integrate renewable en
14、ergy technologies(in addition to efficiency and electrification of buildings and transport)into urban planning and regulations.To date,most efforts towards energy transitions are taking place in large cities,and they are as a result garnering most of the attention when urban trends are studied.With
15、their larger revenue base,big cities tend to have the regulatory frameworks and infrastructure necessary to scale up renewables and meet emission reduction targets.Small and medium-sized cities(holding fewer than 1million inhabitants)frequently lack the requisite access to financing and policy suppo
16、rt to advance in this direction.They have far less visibility than megacities,even though they are home to some 2.4 billion people,or 59%of the worlds urban population(UN-Habitat,2018)and are growing faster than any other urban category(UN-Habitat,2020).This study,in combination with the other studi
17、es published under the series“Renewable Energy Policies for Cities”,fills a knowledge gap regarding the deployment of renewable energy in medium-sized cities,focusing on the challenges and successes to date.The first chapter provides some general background on urban renewable energy initiatives arou
18、nd the world.Each city has its own set of opportunities and obstacles.Regardless of setting,however,openness to best practices is vital.It has also offered a brief overview of some of the initiatives and measures taken in pursuit of energy transition objectives,drawing on examples of cities small an
19、d large around the world.Chapter 2 presents case studies of Chongli District and Tongli Town,in China.The case studies begin with a sketch of the national context and roles of cities.The discussion of relevant initiatives and experiences is followed by a set of lessons learnt.The report wraps up wit
20、h some broader conclusions.The findings of this study1 should,it is hoped,support other countries as they implement their Nationally Determined Contributions,empowering cities to deploy sustainable energy approaches and solutions that can contribute to reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.The case
21、 study outlines the national-level policies that frame renewable energy deployment at the local level and offers a summary of key lessons learnt and considerations for taking solutions to scale.They also synthesise key takeaway messages for policy makers both at the local and national levels to help
22、 empower cities in their endeavour to contribute to a more sustainable energy future.Where the case studies make reference to monetary values,these are expressed in the national currency of the country in question and,with the help of applicable exchange rates,are also stated in US dollars(USD).3REN
23、EWABLE ENERGY POLICIES FOR CITIESCONTENTSAbout this study _03RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIES _06Motivations and drivers of municipal action on energy _ 10Municipal needs and capabilities _12The significance of cities in deploying renewable energy _14Cities roles in energy generation and procurement _15C
24、ities roles in regulation and urban planning _18The role of cities in target setting,engagement and capacity building _25CHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWN _28National context _29Background _29Renewable energy development in China _32Chinas energy sectoral organisation and the role of c
25、ities _37Case study 1:Chongli District _39Background _39Deploying renewable energy in Chongli _42Case study 2:Tongli Town _47Background _47Deploying renewable energy in Tongli _50Lessons learnt and considerations for replicability _56WRAP-UP _ 58References _ 62Abbreviations _66 Photo Credits _ 674RE
26、NEWABLE ENERGY POLICIES FOR CITIESFIGURESFigure 1 Motivations and drivers of municipal decision making on energy _ 11Figure 2 Factors shaping city energy profiles _ 12Figure 3 Roles of municipal governments in the energy transition _ 14Figure 4 Electric bus adoption in Shenzhen,China _ 24Figure 5 Sh
27、are of total primary energy consumption in China,by fuel,2018 _ 29Figure 6 Share of total final energy consumption in China,by sector,2017 _ 30Figure 7 Administrative layers of the Chinese government _ 32Figure 8 Installed power capacity in China,by energy source,2018 _ 33Figure 9 Cumulative renewab
28、le energy installations in China,20152019 _ 33Figure 10 Share of renewable consumption in China,by sector,20132018 _ 34Figure 11 Chongli District _ 39Figure 12 Tongli Town _ 47Figure 13 Key stakeholders in Tongli Towns renewables policy _ 50Figure 14 Factors and drivers motivating municipal energy p
29、olicies and cities roles in the energy transition _ 59TABLESTable 1 Feed-in tariffs and feed-in premiums,by type,2020 _ 35Table 2 Installed and planned solar and onshore wind power generation in Chongli District,2018 _ 41Table 3 Targets for renewables share of energy consumption in Suzhou City,Tongl
30、i Town and town centre,by 2020 _ 51Table 4 Targets for renewable deployment,by technology,in Suzhou City,by 2020 _ 51BOXESBox 1 What is a city?_ 09Box 2 Municipal efforts to promote renewable energy in Cape Town _ 15Box 3 Corporate sourcing of renewable energy _ 16Box 4 District heating and cooling
31、pioneers _ 17Box 5 Examples of rooftop solar photovoltaic in cities _ 18Box 6 Net metering across the world _ 19Box 7 Solar thermal ordinances in practice _ 20Box 8 C40 fossil fuel free streets declaration _ 22Box 9 Pioneering electric bus use in Shenzhen(China)_ 24Box 10 Community choice in Athens,
32、Ohio (United States)_ 26Box 11 Administrative units in China:province,city,district and county _ 31Box 12 Chongli district and the 2022 Winter Olympics _ 40Box 13 The four-party co-ordination platform of Zhangjiakou city _ 43Box 14 Deployment of renewable energy heating solutions in Chongli _ 45Box
33、15 Investment in renewables-based projects related to the Winter Olympics _ 46Box 16 Demonstration projects in Tongli Town:SGCCs energy service centre and a permanent venue for an international energy transition forum _ 545RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESRENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESGiven that cities are d
34、ynamic agglomerations of people and their many activities,they are not easily defined(see Box1).But it is beyond doubt that urban areas across the world are home to an ever-increasing share of the global population.As of 2018,cities were home to 55%of the total population,up from just 30%in 1950.By
35、2050,the United Nations(UN)expects that 68%of the worlds population will reside in cities(UNDESA,2018).This rapid growth is driven both by an increase in the number of people already residing in cities and by the continued movement of people from rural areas into cities,spurred by economic opportuni
36、ties and higher living standards in urban areas.The UN projects that the fastest growth will occur in low-and lower middle income countries in Asia and Africa.Cities are where much of the worlds economic activity is concentrated,accounting for more than 80%of global gross domestic product(GDP).Energ
37、y is the lifeblood of cities,powering transport,industrial production,commerce,building construction,public works,lighting,air conditioning and countless other human activities.Cities are engines of the economy,using about 75%of global primary energy.They have a major role to play in advancing and s
38、haping the global energy transition away from polluting fuels and technologies.Because much of current urban energy supply is fossil fuel-based,cities are major contributors of air pollutants and greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions.Cities are responsible for around 70%of global energy related GHG emissions
39、 and are therefore the main driver of climate change(UN-Habitat,2019).At the same time,cities suffer from high rates of air pollution;according to the World Health Organization(WHO),98%of cities with more than 100000 inhabitants in low-and middle income countries do not meet WHO air quality guidelin
40、es(WHO,2016).of global primary energy is consumed in urban areas.of global energy related GHG emissions come from citiesof the total population are in cities75%70%55%7RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESMuch of the challenge of sustainable development,in its economic,social and environmental dimensions,relat
41、es to how cities are governed and how urban growth is managed.Climate change poses tremendous challenges to cities economic vitality and even habitability,due to sea-level rise and the increased intensity and frequency of weather events such as storms,flooding,droughts and heat waves.Hundreds of mil
42、lions of urban residents will be increasingly vulnerable to sustained extreme heat,which will in turn drive increased use of air conditioning.Their lives will be deeply affected by less freshwater availability,lower major crop yields and more coastal flooding as sea levels rise(C40 Cities et al.,201
43、8).Interruptions in power supply because of these climatic changes are likely to be further escalated by greater demand for air conditioning,particularly in emerging economies where grids are still weak.Mitigation and adaptation efforts will require growing material and financial resources.As urban
44、populations continue to grow,cities will need to increase the integration of renewable energy technologies(RETs)into power grids and other energy distribution systems to mitigate the effects of climate change and achieve their Nationally Determined Contribution(NDC)targets.Analysis conducted by the
45、International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA)highlights that while renewable energy deployment measures in the power sector are often developed in the context of national policies,many measures relevant to the end uses of renewable energy,such as in the building and transport sectors,are made at the
46、city level(IRENA,2016;IRENA,2017b;IRENA,IEA and REN21,2018).National policies,meanwhile,shape local action.It is important to build the capacity of cities to identify renewable energy solutions that suit their particular circumstances and needs and to integrate these solutions in planning processes.
47、The next step is to secure the requisite financing.8RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESBOX 1 WHAT IS A CITY?There are multiple definitions of what constitutes a city,owing to the dynamic realities of urban settlements and reflecting a variety of functional and administrative arrangements.Broadly speaking,a
48、city or urban area is a densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries where inhabitants live on a permanent basis and the bulk of economic activity takes place outside primary sectors like agriculture or resource extraction.With this generic definition,the term“city”can be applied t
49、o a very broad array of urban settlements that share some characteristics but may also be marked by tremendous differences.One of them concerns size of a citys population and its density,and its effective territory,including surrounding rural areas that fall under a citys municipal authority.Jurisdi
50、ctions and administrative units in this context differ between countries,leading to significant discrepancies between what is being talked about with regards to a“city”an urban conglomerate,a“city proper”,a geographic or administrative unit that extends beyond purely urban areas for example.Converse
51、ly,a large contiguous urban area may be sub-divided into multiple towns or districts,a situation that may render effective urban governance difficult.Thus,the city as a governance unit can be dramatically different from the larger metropolitan area that exists.This special circumstance,which can tra
52、nslate into vastly different administrative setups for urban governance,is illustrated by the cases of China in this report.The particular context of cities may help explain why a large portion of existing literature focuses on large and“mega”cities,rather than secondary and medium-size cities,a gap
53、 that this report aims to help bridge.Urban areas can be broadly grouped into small,medium,large,and megacities.But there are no agreed thresholds.In part this reflects the fact that many cities are continuously growing and thus defy static definitional boundaries.But there is also the reality that
54、each country has its own approach to how it classifies cities.The first,analytical section of this report draws on initiatives and experiences of cities small and large around the world,but the case study cities were selected from the ranks of“medium-size”populations(defined for the purpose of this
55、study as anywhere from 30000 to 1 million inhabitants).As this report notes in the context of the case studies it presents,urban governance systems vary significantly.Political mandates,regulatory and revenue-generating authority of a given municipality diverge among cities of comparable size,and st
56、rongly affect the degree to which medium-size,or secondary cities can become agents of change within a countrys energy transition.Cities can be renewable energy pioneers,but urban decision-making in support of the energy transition often depends strongly on the overall governance hierarchies in each
57、 country and thus on effective collaboration with national-level authorities.Source:Lpez Moreno(2017).9RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESMOTIVATIONS AND DRIVERS OF MUNICIPAL ACTION ON ENERGYCities,can be important agents driving local renewable energy deployment through measures and initiatives that comple
58、ment policy at the national level.Municipal energy policy is most directly concerned with securing adequate energy supply,which includes considerations of affordability and choices regarding suitable types of energy sources and carriers.How much energy is needed is influenced by decisions in sectors
59、 other than energy:Urban planning shapes cities in fundamental ways,strongly influencing the amount of energy(and to some extent even the type of energy)required for all types of urban activities.Cities with strong zoning laws and land-use controls can more readily affect settlement density and prom
60、ote mixed-use development(limiting the segregation of residential,commercial and industrial activities).Such structural factors have decisive influence on energy needs.Individual motorised transportation is difficult to avoid in cities spread out over a large area.Similarly,cities with a preponderan
61、ce of single-family houses require more energy both for heating and cooling and for transport than those where apartment buildings make up a large share of available housing.Far-sighted urban policy will avoid structural path dependencies that lock in high energy demand,or,where they already exist,w
62、ill seek to minimise and gradually overcome them.Cities are often motivated to promote renewables by a number of factors beyond energy supply(see Figure 1).Critical considerations concern the cost and affordability of energy(including energy access and energy poverty issues);economic development obj
63、ectives(including the ability to build local supply chains and to attract and retain a diversity of businesses)and employment generation.Social equity considerations reducing poverty and ensuring that poorer urban communities have access to clean energy solutions are also central.Concerns about clim
64、ate impacts are rising in importance,joining long-standing worries over the health impacts of air pollution from fossil fuel use,as well as the desire to ensure liveability and a high quality of life.Climate and air quality objectives add to the urgency of the energy transition.Yet even greater ambi
65、tion higher targets for renewables and shorter implementation timelines may be needed to confront funding barriers.10Economic development and jobsClimate stabilityAir qualityand healthGovernanceSecure and afordableenergySocial equityRENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESFigure 1 Motivations and drivers of muni
66、cipal decision making on energySource:IRENA urban policy analysis.Energy-related policy making is a complex process involving the diverse motivations of many stakeholders,from local community groups to the private sector.Progress not only requires the formulation of comprehensive plans,but also the
67、resources and institutional capacity for successful implementation.Implementation requires vision,policy coherence and pragmatic co-ordination across various levels and layers of municipal governance.In advancing the use of renewable energy,cities have multiple roles and responsibilities.IRENAs repo
68、rt on Renewable Energy in Cities(IRENA,2016)characterised cities as important actors in several dimensions:they can and must act as planners,regulators,owners of municipal infrastructure,procurers and distributors of energy services,direct consumers of energy,aggregators of demand,advocates and faci
69、litators,and financiers of renewable energy projects.These are highly diverse roles and responsibilities that entail a broad array of policy tools.In some cases,cities have the authority to take policy and regulatory action directly and on their own,whereas others may be able to act only in conjunct
70、ion with authorities at the national and state/provincial levels or may only have indirect influence through persuasion and awareness-raising.Local energy transition strategies are driven by multiple actors whose significance varies from city to city(and country to country),reflecting different admi
71、nistrative and policy making structures,as well as civic cultures.Mayors,city councils and municipal agencies are key actors in planning,issuing regulations and implementing policies and projects.Utilities and energy companies are other important actors;their roles and influence can vary considerabl
72、y,depending on whether they are strictly local entities or operate on a larger(provincial,national or international)scale and whether they are under public or private ownership.Regulatory authority and financing needs can give regional and national governments a strong say in urban affairs.The energ
73、y needs of the private sector manufacturers,commercial businesses and service providers shape a citys energy demand profile,along with household consumption.Community groups and other grassroots organisations may launch initiatives to urge faster or more ambitious action on the energy transition,but
74、 citizens may also express opposition to planned policies and projects.The presence of so many different stakeholders in the urban landscape makes for a dynamic situation.11Ownership of energy assetsClimatezoneDemographictrendsSettlementdensityEconomicstructureand wealthRegulatoryauthorityInstitutio
75、nalcapacityRENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESMUNICIPAL NEEDS AND CAPABILITIESAlthough cities across the world face many similar challenges,their particular circumstances,needs and capacities to act which are typically a product of their historically grown structures and reflect their various political cult
76、ures can vary enormously.Cities plans thus need to be tailored to their specific circumstances.Figure 2 provides an overview of the key factors many of them interconnected that shape cities energy profiles.Figure 2 Factors shaping city energy profilesSource:IRENA urban policy analysis12RENEWABLE ENE
77、RGY AND CITIES Climate zone:Individual cities energy options are conditioned by an array of variables.Some,such as the particular climate zone in which a city is located(dictating heating and cooling demand profiles),are immutable although advancing climate change triggers new challenges.Demographic
78、 trends:Cities with growing populations confront greater challenges than cities with more stable populations.This is especially the case in urban areas with large and rapidly expanding informal settlements,where energy access is limited or where residents suffer from energy poverty.Settlement densit
79、y:Compact cities are able to build attractive public transportation networks,while sprawling megalopolises struggle to make them work and often remain reliant on energy-intensive passenger cars.The extent of mixed-use,transit oriented development influences the amount of energy required for routine
80、human activities.In the building sector,the age,characteristics and condition of the building stock are of great importance to energy use.Economic structure and wealth:Cities energy use profiles are shaped in fundamental ways by their economic structures.“Producer cities”with extensive materials pro
81、cessing and manufacturing industries,or those that function as significant trans shipment nodes for global trade,tend to have a large energy footprint.“Consumer cities”,on the other hand,may have effectively outsourced polluting industrial activities and feature an extensive service sector.In genera
82、l,wealthy,economically dynamic cities(i.e.,those where a diversified economy supports a major flow of tax revenues)are able to act in ways that poorer cities cannot.Legal and budgetary authority:Decision-making power over matters that affect urban areas does not always fully rest with municipal auth
83、orities.Statutory authority often lies with national energy utilities and national or state/provincial regulatory authorities.Institutional capacity and expertise:The ability of cities to act is shaped and constrained by the degree to which they either already have,or are able to build,adequate capa
84、city(in terms of planning,implementation,budgetary resources and staffing)and access to required technical and professional expertise.Regulatory power and asset ownership:The role of private-sector energy providers varies from city to city,influencing the degree to which cities are able to exert con
85、trol over energy generation in terms of ownership structures,investor preferences,operational authority or regulatory enforcement power.Cities typically do have substantial influence over factors that influence energy consumption,such as spatial planning,building efficiency,urban transport modes,set
86、tlement patterns and household consumption practices.13Target setters and plannersRegulatorsOperatorsFinanciersConvenersandfacilitatorsAwarenessbuildersDemandaggregatorsRENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESTHE SIGNIFICANCE OF CITIES IN DEPLOYING RENEWABLE ENERGYIRENAs report on Renewable Energy in Cities(IREN
87、A,2016)identified several dimensions of cities role in shaping adaptation and mitigation efforts,and as such in accelerating the deployment of renewable energy solutions as a key pillar of national sustainable energy targets.Cities can be target setters,planners and regulators.They are often owners,
88、and thus operators of municipal infrastructure.Cities are always direct consumers of energy and therefore aggregators of demand,and can be conveners and facilitators,and financiers of renewable energy projects.Finally,cities through their local governments can be important awareness builders,both th
89、rough existing roles such as target setters and planners,and through their own voice through local media.The following subsections explore several ways in which cities can promote the use of renewable energy(see Figure3).They focus on three key sectors of the urban economy,namely,the energy sector i
90、tself(production and procurement of energy)and two key end-use sectors,buildings and transport.The discussion draws on selected examples of policy initiatives and experiences from cities around the world which are presented in short text boxes.Figure 3 Roles of municipal governments in the energy tr
91、ansitionSource:IRENA urban policy analysis(based on IRENA 2016).14RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESCITIES ROLES IN ENERGY GENERATION AND PROCUREMENTMunicipal energy generation and procurement are fundamental functions.In many countries,the statutory authority for urban electricity supply lies with nationa
92、l energy utilities and regulatory authorities.Public ownership can be an effective lever for driving local energy transitions and for channelling funding to renewables.But the degree to which cities own their municipal generating facilities varies substantially among countries;privatisation moves in
93、 previous decades have limited the extent of public control in many places.Germany is one country where local public utilities,as well as citizens energy co-operatives,play a significant role in electricity generation and distribution,in some cases after successful grassroots campaigns to“remunicipa
94、lise”energy assets.In the United States,as of 2013,more than 2000 communities,with about 14%of the countrys population,got their electricity from city-owned utilities(IRENA,2016).In a number of countries,municipalities are setting up new entities to generate renewable power from local resources,such
95、 as in the United Kingdom,where public companies and community-owned enterprises have been set up in Aberdeen,Bristol,Nottingham and Woking(Cumbers,2016).Cape Town,South Africa,offers another example(see Box2).BOX 2 MUNICIPAL EFFORTS TO PROMOTE RENEWABLE ENERGY IN CAPE TOWNCape Town,South Africa,has
96、 undertaken a number of initiatives and infrastructure projects aimed at reducing city-wide electricity consumption(through greater efficiency in buildings,transport and street lighting as well as metering and monitoring measures)and at increasing renewable energy capacity,to reduce heavy dependence
97、 on coal-generated power.As is the case for other cities in this country,concerns about the reliability of supply(load shedding),rising electricity prices and increasing awareness of the promise of renewable energy technologies have been key drivers of action.Cape Town has installed rooftop solar ph
98、otovoltaic systems on several municipal buildings and facilities and maintains four microhydro generation turbines at water treatment plants that meet 5%of the total electricity used for municipal operations.Cape Town is also one of 18 municipalities in the country that have begun to facilitate smal
99、l-scale distributed energy projects in the residential,commercial and industrial sectors.Some 274projects,with a peak generation capacity of 247kilowatts(kW),had been approved as of early 2018,and more than 2megawatts(MW)of additional capacity were in the planning pipeline(ICLEI and IRENA,2018).Cape
100、 Town,South Africa15RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESEven where they do not own energy-generating assets,municipalities can promote the adoption of renewable energy by exercising the purchasing power inherent in their roles as aggregators and regulators of energy demand.Green public procurement has become
101、 a widely used term,and the European Union has developed criteria and guidelines for it(European Commission,2020).Municipal authorities may,for example,adopt clean energy guidelines governing their purchases of electricity,energy for heating and cooling,or transport fuels.By setting targets,adopting
102、 labelling schemes or requiring green certificates,cities can influence what kinds of energy sources private providers develop and offer to local households and businesses.In this manner,they may also shape companies own purchasing decisions,as seen in the growing move towards corporate sourcing of
103、renewable power(see Box3).BOX 3 CORPORATE SOURCING OF RENEWABLE ENERGYCompanies in the commercial and industrial sector account for roughly two-thirds of the worlds end-use of electricity.An increasing number of these companies are committing to ambitious renewable electricity targets to power their
104、 own operations,driven amongst other by the steady decline in renewables costs as well as a growing demand for corporate sustainability among investors and consumers.Already in 2017,over 465 terawatt-hours(TWh)of renewable electricity were actively sourced by companies comparable to the electricity
105、consumption of France.Policies to support corporate sourcing have been introduced in over 70countries,however,barriers in many markets are preventing companies from sourcing renewables and exercising their full purchasing power.Cities can play an important role in ensuring that the growing corporate
106、 demand for renewables can be met and leveraged to accelerate investments in renewables.Cities can,for example,ensure th at enabling frameworks are available to support corporate production of electricity for self-consumption;“green procurement”options should also be available.Cities with utility ow
107、nership can directly shape their energy offerings and may consider,e.g.,green premium products or tailored renewable energy contracts,such as green tariff programmes.These programmes enable companies to purchase renewable electricity from a specific asset through a longer-term utility contract simil
108、ar to a corporate Power Purchase Agreement.In the United States,utilities in 13states and the District of Columbia were offering green tariff programmes as of late 2017.Deals totalling more than 950 MW were contracted over the 2013-17 period through these programmes.While there is a growing interest
109、 from the corporate sector to source renewables,there is still room for companies to strengthen their ambitions and accelerate decarbonisation of their operations.Through long-term renewable energy targets and energy transition plans,cities can encourage companies to further participate in the energ
110、y transition while fostering a greener and more resilient business environment,even attracting new economic development.Source:IRENA,2018d.16RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESExpanding the use of district energy systemsDistrict energy is a technology option particularly suited to municipal procurement.Many
111、 cities have considerable authority over the generation and distribution of heating and cooling(IRENA,2016).District energy systems could play a role as enabling infrastructure to achieve better efficiency for dense urban areas and offer opportunities to integrate low temperature renewables such as
112、geothermal heat(IRENA,IEA and REN21,2020).Renewable energy at present supplies only 8%of district heat worldwide,a share that would need to rise to 77%in 2050 under an ambitious energy transition scenario(IRENA,2020d).A few European countries have achieved shares of 50%or more(see Box4).Globally,417
113、solar district heating systems(with a combined capacity of 1.73GWth)were in place in 2019,up from 345 in 2018(REN21,2020).Business and policy models vary,depending on local conditions and priorities,ranging from full public ownership to public private partnerships to private ownership,including mode
114、ls where the owners are also the consumers(IRENA,2017b;IRENA,IEA and REN21,2018).The public model allows cities to control tariffs and thus to guard against energy poverty among residents.BOX 4 DISTRICT HEATING AND COOLING PIONEERSSeveral cities are building or expanding district energy systems.Vxj,
115、Sweden,is a pioneer in using biomass and co-generation for district heating purposes(Agar and Renner,2016).Another leader is Icelands capital,Reykjavik,where some 95%of residences are connected to a geothermal-based district heating network(IRENA,2016).Industrial waste heat is being recycled in vari
116、ous European cities(IRENA,2016).European cities lead the move towards solar district heating systems(which numbered about 340 worldwide as of 2018),but such systems are beginning to spread to other regions,such as Bishkek,Kyrgyzstan,which inaugurated a solar system in 2017(REN21,2018).The developmen
117、t of modern district heating systems and efficient buildings running at low temperatures has paved the way for a greater utilisation of low-enthalpy resources,including from abandoned mines and through heat pumps.17RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESInstalling solar street lightingSolar PV technology is ano
118、ther key technology suitable for municipal deployment and energy generation.Cities and municipalities can support the deployment of solar photovoltaic(PV)technology,for instance by modernising street lighting.Streetlights account for a significant share of urban energy use.Worldwide,lighting account
119、s for around 20%of all electricity used(Rondolat,n.d.),with public lighting consuming as much as 40%of a citys energy budget(IRENA,2016).Solar-powered LED bulbs offer energy and cost savings of 50%or more and,with life spans of up to 20 years,are far more durable than conventional lights.They offer
120、additional benefits if they are networked(rather than standalone installations)and combined with smart grid development,net metering and demand response policies.The potential is huge:only about 10%of the approximately 300 million streetlights globally are LEDs,and only 1%are networked(Rondolat,n.d.
121、).CITIES ROLES IN REGULATION AND URBAN PLANNINGCities can play a key role in promoting rooftop solar PV in urban spaces.Rooftop solar PV is a dynamic and increasingly cost-effective technology(IRENA,2017b)whose adoption can be boosted significantly through regulatory requirements,in particular build
122、ing codes,or through incentives to building owners.The impact of systematic deployment can be significant,as buildings are among the biggest users of energy and contribute substantially to greenhouse gas emissions(UNEP,2018).For cities,encouraging the deployment of rooftop solar applications through
123、 regulatory measures can be a win-win policy that integrates well with parallel local and national efforts to increase energy efficiency.Urban policies in particular promise greater success if they address common barriers to the deployment of solar rooftop solutions(such as a large portion of tenant
124、s rather than owners in a building).Box 5 offers some examples of such policies.BOX 5 EXAMPLES OF ROOFTOP SOLAR IN CITIESChinese cities have been at the forefront of solar rooftop efforts.The city of Dezhou,in Shandong Province(northwest China),launched its“Million Roof Project”in 2008,requiring tha
125、t all new residential buildings be equipped with solar water heaters.Solar thermal or solar PV technology is integrated in 95%of new buildings in the city(ICLEI and IRENA,2013a).Elsewhere in Asia,Tokyo,Japan,plans to install 1gigawatt(GW)of rooftop systems by 2024,including 22MW on publicly owned bu
126、ildings and facilities.The city has created Japans first solar map,the“Tokyo Solar Register”,which calculates suitable solar photovoltaic(PV)system size(kW)and potential electricity generation(kilowatt-hour,kWh)by assessing solar insolation,rooftop space,roof tilt and shading for each specific home
127、or building(Movellan,2015).Seoul in the Republic of Korea also has a PV capacity goal of 1GW by 2022.The“Solar City Seoul”plan is set to invest KRW 1.7trillion(USD1.56billion).In addition to increasing the number of miniature solar generators on household rooftops and verandas to as many as 1million
128、,Seoul will also install PV panels at major buildings and parks,designating a number of areas around the city as solar energy landmarks or solar energy special districts(Renewables Now,2017;Lennon,2017).San Francisco,California,became the first major US city in April 2016 to require all new building
129、s to install rooftop solar PV(IRENA,2016).The city administration also has a goal of installing 100MW of solar power on public buildings and spurring the installation of 250MW on private buildings by 2025(Patel,2016).To deal with the variability of solar power,New York City is the first city in the
130、United States to adopt a citywide target of 100 megawatt-hours(MWh)by 2020 for energy storage,though stringent safety and permitting rules have slowed progress(Maloney,2018).18Bangalore,IndiaRENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESAdopting net meteringNet metering is a billing mechanism that allows consumers who
131、 generate their own electricity(e.g.,through solar rooftop assemblies)to store that energy in the grid.Production in excess of the generators own needs can be sent to the grid in exchange for credits,which can be used to pull power from the grid when demand exceeds generation(at night,for example).T
132、hrough net metering,local or national authorities can encourage solar PV deployment,allowing households or businesses that generate their own electricity to feed any surplus back to the grid,thus turning them from consumers into“prosumers”.They can either receive a credit against future consumption
133、or remuneration at a specified rate(IRENA,2016).In some countries,national-level authorities are responsible for net metering;however,where national regulators have not set up such regulations,municipal authorities may do so under their function as local electricity regulators.See Box6 for examples.
134、BOX 6 NET METERING ACROSS THE WORLDNet metering has been introduced in a number of cities across the world.In the United Arab Emirates,the Shams Dubai programme adopted by the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority led to an installation of 3040MW of solar capacity on the premises of the Dubai Ports
135、Authority(IRENA,2019).In Indias capital,New Delhi,net metering was introduced in 2014.Homeowners can either own a solar power system or lease it on a monthly basis from project developers(Times of India,2017).In Indias state of Karnataka,Bangalore is struggling to meet its energy needs as demand ris
136、es while droughts diminish hydropower generation.After the city introduced its net-metering programme in 2014,deployment of rooftop solar panels by residents,business owners,schools and other public institutions expanded rapidly.Solar capacity connected to the grid of the city utility BESCOM expande
137、d from 5.6MW in 2016(Martin and Ryor,2016)to 98 MW in the fall of 2018(New Indian Express,2018).19RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESPromulgating solar thermal ordinancesMunicipal ordinances may establish minimum requirements for the use of renewable energy,including solar energy,biomass,and air-or ground-s
138、ourced heat pumps.Such measures are typically required in new buildings and buildings that undergo major refurbishment.In several cases,municipal requirements are more ambitious than national ones;in this way,cities function as pioneers,helping to elevate national standards over time.Solar thermal o
139、rdinances are a key example of such measures;they are municipal regulations that stipulate that solar energy provide a specified minimum share of heating demand.Over the past decade or so,solar ordinances have become an increasingly common tool to promote the deployment of solar thermal technology a
140、cross many countries worldwide(ESTIF,2018)(see Box7).Integrating solar water heaters into social housing programmes can also be an important way to ensure that low-income households can benefit from renewables as well.BOX 7 SOLAR THERMAL ORDINANCES IN PRACTICEChina is home to about 70%of global inst
141、alled solar water heating(SWH)capacity.More than 80 cities in China having adopted favourable policies for installing such systems,often including mandatory installation in new buildings.The city of Rizhao,in Shandong Province,has promoted SWH in residential buildings for the past 20 years through r
142、egulations,subsidies and information campaigns for residents.Today,virtually all households in the city centre use it.The Shandong provincial government helped finance solar research and development,resulting in competitive pricing of SWH systems compared to electric heaters(IRENA,2016;REN21,ISEP an
143、d ICLEI,2011).In 2000,Barcelona,Spain,became the first European city to pass a solar thermal ordinance.It requires that 60%of running hot water needs in all new,renovated or repurposed buildings both private and publicly owned be covered through solar thermal energy.To ensure public awareness and ac
144、ceptance,a“Solar Reflection Days”initiative showcased state-of-the-art systems.“Taula Solar”was set up to promote stakeholder discussion.More than 70 other Spanish cities have replicated Barcelonas ordinance;in 2006,a requirement to install solar thermal systems became part of Spains national Techni
145、cal Building Code(ICLEI,2014).In Brazil,So Paulos 2007 solar ordinance mandates that solar technology cover at least 40%of the energy used for water heating in all new buildings.Public consultations were a key element in drafting the ordinance.Product certification efforts were critical to avoid the
146、 use of low-quality equipment that could have damaged public acceptance(ICLEI and IRENA,2013b;ABRAVA,2015).The ordinance inspired similar measures in cities across Brazil;the country is a global leader in deploying solar water heaters(Weiss and Sprk-Dr,2018).Barcelona,Spain20RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CIT
147、IESAdopting measures to decarbonise transportAccounting for one-third of total final energy consumption worldwide,the transport sector is one of the largest energy users in the urban environment,making it an important,yet often neglected target of renewables-focused policy.Energy demand in the trans
148、port sector is growing fast,and a significant share of urban transport energy use remains in the form of gasoline and diesel fuels,as well as power generated from coal.Urban policy making that seeks to decarbonise the transport sector can tap into a broad array of measures aimed at supporting cleane
149、r fuels,electrification,a better modal mix and reduced need for motorised transport.Often driven by air pollution concerns,cities around the world are increasingly trying to reduce the number of cars on urban streets,by encouraging passengers to shift to the most efficient or environmentally friendl
150、y mode(s)to improve trip efficiency.Such modes include,for example,non-motorised transport,public transport or carpools.Policies to support such shifts include the promotion of car sharing,closing certain roads entirely or for high-emission vehicles,and the creation of pedestrian walkways and bike-s
151、haring systems(IRENA,IEA and REN21,2018).Although such policies do not directly concern renewable energy use,they create the context within which cleaner fuels and electricity assume growing significance.Relevant policies undertaken at the city level include congestion pricing,vehicle quotas through
152、 auctions or lottery systems,license plate restrictions,low-emission zones,parking restrictions and car-free streets(McKerracher,2018;SLOCAT,2018;Hidalgo,2014;Renner,2016;Reuters,2015).The use of renewable energy in transport offers numerous additional benefits,such as enhanced energy security,reduc
153、ed transport-related carbon emissions and increased opportunities for sustainable economic growth and jobs(e.g.,there are more than 1.7 million jobs in the biofuels industry worldwide)(IRENA,2017c).Depending on the renewable fuel,it may also improve local air quality.A growing number of cities are p
154、ushing for reducing and eventually ending the use of vehicles with internal combustion engines in favour of electric vehicles(EVs)an important though not exclusive avenue towards renewable energys greater role in transport.For example,Athens in Greece,Madrid in Spain and Mexico City in Mexico have d
155、ecided to ban petrol-and diesel powered cars by 2025,and Paris will do so by 2030(UNFCC,2016).More than 30cities2 around the world have signed the C40 Fossil Fuel Free Streets Declaration(see Box 8),which includes a commitment to transition away from vehicles running on fossil fuels(C40 Cities,n.d.)
156、.These policies create the context within which cleaner transportation energy,whether in the form of biofuels or renewable-energy-based electricity,will play an increasing role.2 Among the signatories are a number of cities with fewer than 1 million inhabitants:Copenhagen,Cape Town,Heidelberg(German
157、y),Oslo,Rotterdam,Vancouver,Honolulu,Oxford,Manchester,Santa Monica and West Hollywood.21RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESPromoting renewable-energy-based e-mobilityThe electrification of transport creates opportunities for greater integration of renewable electricity for trains,light rail,trams and two-,
158、three-and four-wheeled EVs.Urban efforts to reduce reliance on internal combustion engines are often paired with targets,mandates and incentives to support the electrification of municipal bus fleets,taxis and private vehicles.Measures including changes in subsidies,fleet procurement and conversion,
159、and the provision of charging infrastructure are among the efforts being undertaken in a growing number of cities.The life-cycle emissions of EVs compare favourably with those of internal combustion vehicles(ICCT,2018),even in countries like China,where power generation is still dominated by coal(En
160、ergy Foundation China,2018).BOX 8 C40 FOSSIL FUELFREE STREETS DECLARATIONParticipating cities pledge to procure only zero-emission buses from 2025 and to ensure that a major area of the city is a zero-emission zone by 2030.To meet this commitment,a range of measures will be taken(and progress will b
161、e reported on a bi-annual basis):Increasing the rates of walking,cycling and the use of public and shared transport that is accessible to all citizens.Reducing the number of polluting vehicles on the streets and transitioning away from vehicles powered by fossil fuels.Procuring zero-emission vehicle
162、s for city fleets as quickly as possible.Collaborating with suppliers,fleet operators and businesses to accelerate the shift to zero emission vehicles and reduce vehicle miles.Source:C40 Cities,n.d.Moscow,Russia22RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESPolicies that support the uptake of e-mobility need to be pa
163、ired with renewable energy deployment to decarbonise the electricity sector.If efforts are made to raise the share of renewable energy in the electricity mix in parallel to electrification policies,the electrification of transport can become a stepping-stone to the more comprehensive use of renewabl
164、e energy.Policies in favour of passenger car electrification are being formulated at national and local levels in growing numbers of countries(IRENA,IEA and REN21,2018).Support measures include public procurement and investment plans which help to create and stimulate an EV market.Various financial
165、incentives to reduce EV costs include vehicle purchase subsidies,exemptions from applicable taxes and differentiated taxes that penalise polluting or inefficient vehicles and favour better-performing ones.Additionally,regulations such as fuel economy and fuel quality standards and zero emission vehi
166、cle mandates can play an important role.Creating a sufficiently dense network of charging stations is an essential part of an EV strategy.Cities can directly invest in building such infrastructure,issue deployment targets and regulations that standardise hardware and software and introduce measures
167、to encourage privately owned charging stations through building codes and zoning regulations(IRENA,2016).Integrated planning for e-mobility and renewable electricity production,transmission and distribution is crucial to link electrification to renewable energy deployment.Electrification efforts als
168、o extend to municipal bus fleets,which typically run on highly polluting diesel fuel.According to ICCT(2012),the worlds total bus fleet is projected to grow from 16 million vehicles in 2010 to 20million by 2030.Among the barriers to widespread adoption of electric buses are higher upfront costs(alth
169、ough total life-cycle costs may be not much higher than those for diesel models);battery replacement costs(which can represent almost half the vehicle price)and the need for an adequate charging infrastructure(Lu,Xue and Zhou,2018).Altogether,more than 300cities worldwide now have at least some batt
170、ery-powered electric or hybrid buses(SLOCAT,2018),with China accounting for the vast majority of the global fleet(Bloomberg,2019).This development has been supported at the national government level by generous subsidies for vehicle purchases and charging infrastructure,in parallel with reduced subs
171、idies for diesel fuel.Shenzhen has been a leader in switching its bus fleet to EVs(see Box 9).Oslo,Norway23RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESBOX 9 PIONEERING ELECTRIC BUS USE IN SHENZHENIn 2009,China launched the piloting programme for“new energy vehicles(新能源汽车),starting from 25 cities and expanded to hund
172、reds of cities and the whole country.Chosen to be the first“new vehicle”pilot city,Shenzhen had by the end of 2017 completely switched its bus fleet to electric(see Figure 4).This makes Shenzhen the worlds first city whose entire bus fleet is electrified.With financial support from the central gover
173、nment,Shenzhen has provided substantial subsidies for buses and charging facilities,totalling RMB 3.3billion(USD490million)in 2017 alone(Dixon,2017).E-buses deployed in Shenzhen consume 73%less energy than diesel buses and emit 48%less carbon(67 kilogrammes of carbon dioxide per 100 kilometres,compa
174、red to 130 kg for diesel vehicles).During 2017,the fleets carbon dioxide emissions were cut by 1.35milliontonnes.Pollutants such as nitrogen oxides,hydrocarbons and particulate matter are also down(ITDP,2018).According to the Shenzhen Municipal Transportation Commission,the resulting energy savings
175、amount to 366 000tons of coal saved annually,substituted by 345 000tons of alternative fuel(Dixon,2017).As China reduces its heavy reliance on coal power plants,the advantages of e-buses will further widen.Leasing rather than buying buses from manufacturers3 has allowed bus operators in Shenzhen to
176、lower upfront costs and thus the need for debt financing.Manufacturers are providing lifetime warranties for vehicles and batteries,limiting risks to operators.Because e-buses tend to have shorter driving ranges per charge,4 more of them are needed than is the case for a diesel powered fleet,transla
177、ting into greater procurement costs.Shenzhen managed to avoid most of these extra costs by co-ordinating charging and operation schedules;e-buses are charged overnight and recharged at terminals during off-peak hours(Lu,Xue and Zhou,2018).Shenzhen has 510 bus charging stations with a total of 8 000
178、charging points,so that half the fleet can be charged at once(Dixon,2017).SHENZHEN20126 00012 00018 00015 0009 0003 000Number of Vehicles020172016201520142013Figure 4 Electric bus adoption in Shenzhen,ChinaSource:Lu,Xue and Zhou,2018.OpenStreetMap contributors Disclaimer:Boundaries and names shown o
179、n this map do not imply any endorsement or acceptance by IRENA.3 Shenzhen is home to the car and bus manufacturer BYD,the world leader in e-bus production.Promoting local industry,Shenzhen has awarded nominally competitive tenders for e-buses to BYD.However,in February 2018 the central government re
180、formed EV subsidies,prohibiting local authorities to discriminate against non-local vehicle manufacturers(OECD/IEA,2018).4 But performance is improving;the average daily mileage of e-buses in Shenzhen increased 41%between 2012 and 2016(ITDP,2018).24RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESAdopting biofuel blendin
181、g mandates and biomethane useSwitching from internal combustion engines to electric models will take time.A number of governments around the world are pursuing renewable energy deployment policies often through biofuel blending mandates,but also through fiscal incentives and public financing in an e
182、ffort to decrease the carbon footprint of internal combustion engines(REN21,2018;IRENA,IEA and REN21,2018).National or subnational governments in at least 50 countries have enacted biofuel blending mandates,though only seven aim for shares higher than 10%(SLOCAT,2018).In most cases,biofuel blending
183、mandates are adopted at the national level,though some cities have their own initiatives.For example,Curitiba in Brazil is implementing a 100%biodiesel mandate for its municipal bus fleet,as part of its Biocidade programme(IRENA,2015).Vancouver,British Columbia(Canada),hopes by the end of 2030 to co
184、nvert its fleet of 577 diesel powered vehicles(buses,fire engines,garbage trucks,etc.)to biodiesel made from organic wastes like fats and used vegetable oils,and to cut emissions in half compared with 2007(Danigelis,2018).THE ROLE OF CITIES IN TARGET SETTING,ENGAGEMENT AND CAPACITY BUILDING Cities c
185、an drive local renewable energy deployment by championing it through municipal policy and awareness-raising programmes.Progress will likely be greatest if local citizens play an active role in formulating and implementing municipal policies,and if policy makers ensure that all urban residents benefi
186、t from the move to renewable energy.The social equity dimension is thus crucial.Around the world,community energy approaches are an increasingly popular solution to local energy supply challenges.Amongst other,community energy can be defined as a combination of at least two of the following elements
187、(IRENA Coalition for Action,2018):Local stakeholders own the majority or all of a renewable energy project.Voting control rests with a community-based organisation.The majority of social and economic benefits are distributed locally.Such projects may be initiated and directed by municipalities,even
188、as co-operative structures allow urban residents to participate in decision-making processes directly and actively.Citizens must thus acquire the knowledge and capacity needed to act as informed participants in energy decision making(Roberts,Bodman and Rybski,2014).National and local governments can
189、 also contribute to the development of alternative business models to encourage financial institutions to dispense loans(IRENA Coalition for Action,2018).One recent example of community energy is in Athens,Ohio(United States)(see Box 10).25RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESBOX 10 COMMUNITY CHOICE IN ATHENS
190、,OHIO (UNITED STATES)Residents of Athens,Ohio,have access to a community choice programme,the Southeast Ohio Public Energy Council(SOPEC).The citys 2017 Sustainability Action Plan includes a goal of reducing municipal energy use by 20%by 2020.UpGrade Ohio(which used to be a part of SOPEC)launched th
191、e Solar ACCESS programme to help bring solar electricity to low-and moderate-income households.The programme was entered into the US Department of Energys“Solar in Your Community Challenge”.Further,in May 2018,Athens residents approved a ballot initiative in favour of a small carbon fee per kilowatt
192、-hour(kWh).The fee will be routed through the community choice programme(and translate into a USD 1.60 to USD 1.80 monthly cost per household,though residents are allowed to opt out).The revenues will be used to purchase solar panels for public buildings in the city.Community choice aggregation is s
193、een in Athens as a way to help local utility dollars stay local(Farrell,2018).In 2019,close to 2 000 solar panels were installed at a nearby middle school,supplying 70%of its power needs and lowering its power costs(Beard,2019).26RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CITIESMany bottom-up grassroots efforts feature t
194、he active involvement of local residents and community groups,including co-operatives,non-profit associations,community trusts and others that support renewable deployment in urban spaces.For instance,in the favela of Morro de Santa Marta,Rio de Janeiro,Brazil,solar panels were installed at day-care
195、 centres,schools and along alleys and courtyards by Insolar,a local social enterprise.The panels reduce energy costs of the 4 000 residents and provide relief from frequent power outages.STRUCTURE OF THIS REPORTThis lead chapter has laid out the key circumstances,drivers and motivations that shape t
196、he ways cities can act to promote the use of renewable energy in areas under their jurisdiction.It has also offered a brief overview of some of the initiatives and measures taken in pursuit of energy transition objectives,drawing on examples of cities small and large around the world.However,to unde
197、rstand both the possibilities and the constraints(and the real-world ability to scale up efforts and replicate them elsewhere),it is important to examine specific circumstances in the China context.The next chapter begins with a sketch of the national context and how it frames what Chinese cities ca
198、n and cannot do.Its discussion of relevant initiatives and experiences is followed by a set of lessons learnt.The report wraps up with some broader conclusions.Santa Marta,Rio de Janeiro,BrazilNational ContextInitiatives and ExperiencesLessons learntCountry Case27CHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND
199、TONGLI TOWNCHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNNATIONAL CONTEXT BACKGROUNDChina is the worlds most populous country,with about 1.4billion people.Rapid economic growth and large-scale industrialisation has made China the worlds largest energy consumer,accounting for around one-quarter of g
200、lobal primary energy demand in 2018.China is the largest producer and consumer of coal and the largest emitter of carbon dioxide(IEA,2019e).Although the share of renewable energy in the primary energy mix is still at around 12%(Figure5),China is a major market for and producer of renewable energy te
201、chnologies(RETs).In the power sector,clean energy has been accorded priority in an effort to reduce heavy reliance on coal and other fossil fuels.Figure 5 Share of total primary energy consumption in China,by fuel,2018Source:CEPPEI,2019.2959.0%CoalOilNatural gasNuclear8.2%2.0%7.8%Wind2.4%Solar 1.2%O
202、thers0.6%HydropowerOther renewables18.8%TotalprimaryenergyconsumptionCHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNChina relies heavily on energy imports,which accounted for more than 70%of oil use and 43%of natural gas in 2018(CREEI,2019).Natural gas consumption rose 34%over just two years,from 20
203、16 to 2018(IEA,2019a;NDRC,2019,2017).While industries account for more than half of Chinas final energy use,their share fell by 10%between 2010 and 2017,whereas demand in the building(22%)and transport(17%)sectors has risen rapidly(Wang Qingyi,2019)(see Figure6).Increasing urbanisation along with hi
204、gher living standards and the growth of megacities translate into ever-increasing urban energy demand.Including urban-based industries,cities are estimated to account for more than 60%of Chinas total energy consumption and this share is expected to rise further(SGCERI,2018).In 2018 alone,urban growt
205、h added more than 17 million new urban residents,around 2 billion square metres(m2)of building space and more than 22million vehicles(National Bureau of Statistics,2020;Jiang et al.,2018).Urban residents also bear much of the ill effects of high levels of air pollution.Nearly half of the locations i
206、n the WHOs list of the 100 most polluted cities(measuring particulate matter pollution)in 2019 were in China(IQ Air,2020).Coal burning used to be a major source of Chinas air pollution,but its contribution has receded since 2012.The share of vehicle emissions ranges from as low as 10%in smaller urba
207、n areas to much greater shares in some large Chinese cities like Shenzhen(52%),Beijing(45%)and Shanghai(29%)(MEE,2018).Ongoing efforts to replace coal fired heating in northern China have lowered the nations average pollution levels,and Beijings annual PM2.55,over the past several years.But 98%of Ch
208、inese cities still exceeded WHOs PM2.5 target(IQAir,2020).Given Chinas massive population,many of its cities are gigantic by global comparison.This report focuses on replicable,scalable experiences at smaller urban scales,exploring the cases of Chongli District(which is part of Zhangjiakou City in H
209、ebei Province)and Tongli Town(part of Suzhou City in Jiangsu Province).Box11 explains Chinas city level designations and governance structures as background to the analysis that follows.Figure 6 Share of total final energy consumption in China,by sector,2017Source:Wang Qingyi,20195 Particulate matte
210、r.3058%Industry17%Transport22%BuildingsAgriculture3%Total final energy consumptionCHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNBOX 11 ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS IN CHINA:PROVINCE,CITY,DISTRICT AND COUNTYSubnational jurisdictions in China differ from typical structures in other parts of the world;a city
211、or district,for instance,may include both urban and rural areas,including villages,that are administratively part of a city and fall under municipal governance.Clearly classifying medium-sized cities based on only the size of their urban population is thus intrinsically difficult.The population of a
212、 Chinese city can range from several thousand to more than 30 million.More than 91 cities have urban populations of more than 1 million,and 15 are home to more than 5million.A medium-sized city in China would normally have between 500000 and 1million urban inhabitants(State Council,2014).The adminis
213、trative level most comparable with a medium-sized European city is in many cases a town or district of a prefecture city(Li Tie,2019).China divides subnational governance into four levels of administration:provincial,prefectural,county and township.As Figure7 indicates,there are 34 provincial level
214、administrations.These include provinces,autonomous regions,directly administered municipalities and special administrative regions.Many of them are subdivided.Prefectural level cities are in turn divided into districts,county-level cities or counties.Most cities are either prefecture level or county
215、 level.A large share of county-level cities GDP comes from secondary and tertiary sectors and urban residents,while counties focus more on rural development and agriculture.The various levels of administration are not necessarily hierarchical in terms of their decision making power.Currently,China h
216、as 673cities,excluding four provincial-level municipalities under the direct administration of the central government namely Beijing,Shanghai,Tianjin and Chongqing City 302 prefecture-level cities and 371 county-level cities(see Figure7)(MoHURD,2020).Provinces are usually the administrative layer ab
217、ove municipalities.For instance,Suzhou City is a prefecture-level city under the administration of Jiangsu Province and is divided into six districts,the administrative level under prefecture-level cities,and four county-level cities.Tongli Town is in one of Suzhous districts.Suzhou City,Industrial
218、Park31CHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNRENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN CHINARising dependence on fossil fuel imports and growing concerns about carbon emissions and heavy air pollution are driving the government to adopt more ambitious renewable energy targets.Renewable energy represen
219、ted 40%of Chinas installed power generation capacity in 2019 and 28%of its power generation(NEA,2020).Figure8 shows power capacity from different energy sources in 2018.China now has 29%of the worlds installed renewable energy capacity,leading in hydropower,wind and solar PV,as well as the second-la
220、rgest bioenergy capacity worldwide(IRENA,2020b).China also accounts for 70%of the worlds deployment of solar water heaters,99%of electric buses and 45%of all EV stock(IEA,2019c,2019d;BNEF,2018).Hydropower continues to account for the largest share of all renewables in power generation capacity(46%),
221、followed by onshore wind(26%)and solar PV(25%)(CEPPEI,2019).Mounting environmental concerns regarding Chinas large-scale Figure 7 Administrative layers of the Chinese governmentSource:MoHURD,2018,2020;National Bureau of Statistics,2020.Notes:*Including some administrations at the same level.*The fou
222、r cities directly under the central government are Beijing,Shanghai,Tianjin and Chongqing.Figures on prefecture-level cities,county-level cities,counties and districts are as of 2018.Other figures are as of 2016.32Chongli DistrictSuzhou CityZhangjiakou CityProvinces(23)Direct-administeredmunicipalit
223、ies(4)*Autonomusregions(5)Special administrativeregions(2)Districts(around 1 000)County-level cities(371)Counties(1 518)Others*Towns(around 18 000)Township(around 10 000)Others*Villages(around 2.4 million)Others*Prefecture-level cities(302)Others*The State CouncilTongli TownCHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DI
224、STRICT AND TONGLI TOWNFigure 8 Installed power capacity in China,by source,2018hydropower have further boosted other RETs such as solar,wind and bioenergy as technologies of choice for new renewable energy projects(see Figure9).As for the consumption of renewables by sectors,Chinas residential and c
225、ommercial buildings and industries consumed 91%of renewables in 2018(including for power and for heating),while transport consumed only 2%of total renewables.The residential sector has taken on a bigger role due to the higher share of renewable energy used in electricity and in solar water heaters(s
226、ee Figure10).Source:CEPPEI,2019.Figure 9 Cumulative renewable energy installations in China,20152019Source:IRENA,2020b.3360%CoalNuclear19%2%Wind10%Solar 9%HydropowerInstalledpowercapacity2019800700600500400200300100Capacity installation(GW)02015201620172018Ofshore wind energySolar photovoltaicSolid
227、biofuelsOnshore wind energyHydropowerCHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNThe expansion of renewable energy in China has been driven by strategic planning and various supportive policies,some of which are summarised below.Chinas Five-Year Plans Chinas five-year plans(FYPs)constitute the go
228、vernments fundamental policy instrument for target setting and strategy development and implementation.The FYPs set national targets for all renewable technologies as well as influence investment and research and development(R&D).The most recent 13th FYP for 20162020 entails a target of 27%renewable
229、 energy in total electricity generation by 2020 and aims for 675GW cumulative renewable electricity generation capacity by 2020,of which 50%is hydropower(excluding pumped storage),31%wind power,16%solar PV,0.7%CSP and 2%from bioenergy(NDRC,2016).Renewable Energy Development FundThe Renewable Energy
230、Development Fund plays a hefty role in renewables development.The 2006 Renewable Energy Law set a fixed rate of CNY0.001(USD0.00015)and gradually doubled it to CNY0.019(USD0.0029)per kWh of electricity to finance the Renewable Energy Development Fund,which is the financial source of feed-in tariffs(
231、FiTs),feed-in premiums(FiPs)and various subsidies to renewables(NPC,2006).In 2018,close to half,or 44%,of funds went to wind projects,37%to solar and 20%to bioenergy.Those are made available for R&D,industrial development,construction of renewable power plants,procurement and operation of renewable
232、heating equipment and appliances.But Chinas Renewable Energy Development Fund faced a cumulative shortfall of USD32billion(around CNY 230 billion)as of 2018(Yuan Si,2019).The finalisation of a renewable energy portfolio standard and green certificate policies announced by the National Energy Adminis
233、tration(NEA)are expected to mobilise alternative financial resources for renewables and prioritise auctions for onshore wind projects after 2020(Hove and Watzel,2018;NEA,2019b).To support this change,more progress is needed in integrating policies and the power market.Figure 10 Share of renewable en
234、ergy consumption in China,by sector,20132018Source:IRENA,2020c.342018100%90%70%80%60%50%30%40%20%10%Share of final renewables consumption by sector(%)020132014201520162017IndustryTransportCommerceResidentialOtherCHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNFeed-in tariffs(FiTs)Since 2006,the Natio
235、nal Energy Administration(NEA)has promulgated FiT policies applicable to onshore and offshore wind,solar PV,concentrating solar power(CSP)as well as biomass for electricity generation.As shown in Table1,FiTs for onshore wind are determined according to natural resource classification standards that
236、classify all regions in China into four types(Types1 through 4),based on their renewable energy potential combined with the comparative plant construction costs.Type 1 has the greatest potential and lowest costs.Regions with greater renewable potential(and thus presumed lower cost)receive lower tari
237、ffs than regions with less potential.A similar classification applies to solar PV,which has three types of regions.Within this context,local governments are responsible for approving renewable generation.Over time,FiT rates have declined,in recognition of lower costs(NEA,2019b).Feed-in premiums(FiPs
238、)FiPs are available for distributed solar PV renewable generation,including household-scale solar rooftop and self-consumed industrial and commercial projects.A number of cities with higher ambitions for renewables deployment as well as sufficient local financial capacity offer their own local FiPs
239、for distributed solar PV generations.For instance,in 2015,Beijing Municipality announced an extra premium of CNY 0.3/kWh (USD 0.043/kWh)to distributed solar PV projects for a five-year period from 2015 to 2019.A few cities in the Yangtze Delta region released similar local FiP policies,which played
240、an important role in making this the region with the most installations of distributed solar PV projects in China(WRI,2018).PoliciesRenewable energy technologiesRates,in CNYType 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4FiTsOnshore wind60.290.340.380.47Offshore wind(coastal)n/an/an/a0.757Offshore wind(intertidal)n/an/a
241、n/a0.47Solar photovoltaic(PV)(utility scale,commercial and industrial projects that 100%feed-in grid)0.40.450.55n/aSolar PV(poverty alleviation purpose)0.650.750.85n/aConcentrated solar power1.15Biomass(agro-forestry)0.75Municipal solid waste(waste incineration)0.65FiPsDistributed solar PV(self-cons
242、umption by industrial and commercial projects)0.1Distributed solar PV(residential)0.18Table 1 Feed-in tariffs and feed-in premiums,by type,2020Source:CNREC,2019;NDRC,MoF and NEA,2018.Note:Rates highlighted in green are applicable to Chongli District.All rates are for the projects approved in 2020 ac
243、cording to the related policies released in 2019.The exchange rate is USD 1=CNY 6.910,according to the yearly average rate in 2019.6 The rate for distributed onshore wind to participate in market trading pilots is based on negotiation between sellers and consumers.FiTs are not applicable.7 All offsh
244、ore wind generation is in Type 4 areas.35CHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNSubsidies to electric vehiclesChinese national and local governments also provide subsidies for the procurement of EVs and related charging infrastructures.Different from the FiTs and FiPs,these subsidies draw no
245、t from the Renewable Energy Development Fund but from other,dedicated government budgets.A newly adjusted policy on subsidies for new energy vehicles was released by the Ministry of Finance,Ministry of Industry and Information Technology(MIIT),Ministry of Science and Technology and National Developm
246、ent and Reform Commission(NDRC).MIIT has a more proactive role to play in EV related policies,due to its relevance in cultivating the manufacturing industry.During the 13th FYP from 2016 to 2020,some USD 62 billion was planned to be allocated for the procurement of new energy vehicles,including plug
247、-in hybrid and EVs(MEE,2018).Subsidies from national and subnational governments have also been used for infrastructure development related to EVs.Other policiesGiven the curtailment of renewables,enabling and integrating policies were introduced to help build a smart grid system and begin a restruc
248、turing of the power market.In 2017,the curtailed renewable energy generation(100 TWh)was nearly equal to the total residential electricity consumption of the United Kingdom(NEA,2018a,2018b).In 2018,NDRC released a national action plan for accommodating clean energy and resolving the curtailment prob
249、lem(NDRC,2018).The main policy instruments focus not only on the targets and flexible operation of power plants but also encourage the deployment of electric heating technologies using renewable electricity to replace coal-fired heating in northern China(see Chongli case).The implementation of these
250、 national and subnational policies leaves considerable space for local actions and complementing policies.Cities can and need to be more ambitious than national targets in their mandate to foster sustainable urban growth and address local environmental and social challenges,including air pollution a
251、nd poverty,as well as reap benefits such as local employment generation and economic income.The Chongli District of Zhangjiakou City and Tongli Town of Suzhou City are among these pioneers.Shenzhen,Electric Taxi36CHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNCHINAS ENERGY SECTORAL ORGANISATION AND
252、THE ROLE OF CITIESThe governance of Chinas energy sector remains relatively state-centric,though oversees and co-ordinates energy sector and related industrial planning,including target setting(through its five-year plans),industrial strategy,standards,regulation and project approval.The NEA allocat
253、es targets to all provincial administrative divisions for the approval of utility-scale(i.e.,6 MW and above)wind and solar installations,while distributed generation and household solar rooftops are managed by municipal governments.Beginning in 2015,provincial energy administrative departments were
254、authorised to approve utility-scale projects.Distributed solar PV generation(up to 6 MW)for industrial and commercial self-consumption requires registration with the local government.Residential rooftop projects are easier to connect to the grid.The NEA is also responsible for co-ordinating and mana
255、ging the roles of various ministries in support of deploying renewables in power generation,heating and other end-use sectors.The relevant ministries are responsible for different technologies and strategic and cross-cutting issues,such as setting targets and regulating the respective market.For exa
256、mple,the NDRC,the NEA and the Ministry of Finance usually have a greater role in renewables planning and policies,while the project permitting for new capacity installation involves many other ministries,including the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ministry of Ecology and Environment(MEE),among o
257、thers.The national 20172021 winter clean-heating plan in China was released by the NDRC,the NEA,MEE and the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development(MoHURD).MEE also has primary responsibility for climate change,which is related to renewables to some extent.The NEA has been providing guidance
258、 to the renewable energy piloting projects and cities,including Zhangjiakou City.Further,in the context of the National Clean Heating Demonstration Cities,the NEA,in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance,MoHURD and MEE,facilitates CNY 500 million(USD 71 million)annually over a three year period
259、 to support the deployment of clean heating solutions and related infrastructure.Sectoral organisation in the electricity sectorTwo publicly owned companies operate Chinas six regional electricity grids.They have important roles for renewables in terms of grid connection,smart grid and power market
260、reform(NPC,2006).NEA regulations require that transmission and connection lines for all new plants are approved by provincial(6MW and above)or lower level municipal or county level authorities(less than 6MW),with involvement from the two state grid giants(NEA,2013).The branch grid companies in citie
261、s are also responsible for building all the infrastructure needed to enable plants connections.Wind plants follow a similar procedure.The State Grid Corporation of China(SGCC)is the only grid company for 26 out of the 34 provincial-level administrative divisions.The sub-branch company of SGCC in cit
262、ies is the main stakeholder to provide grid connections for all utility-scale and distributed solar and wind power plants in both Chongli District and Tongli Town.It owns and operates the grid networks for both transmission and distribution of electricity to all consumers.In Chongli District,the SGC
263、C branch company is indispensable for meeting the expected six-fold increase in local electricity consumption and for the transactions at the four-party co-ordination platform(see case study 1:Chongli District).It has been in the process of improving the grid and distribution networks in urban Chong
264、li for the electrification of space heating(which would substitute coal burning)and also building more grid infrastructure in Chongli District,especially for the Winter Olympics sports venues.For Tongli Town,the SGCC,including the sub-branch company in Suzhou,has been actively engaged in promoting r
265、enewable energy,not only by making adjustments to grids to allow for more variable electricity to be fed into them,but also by using their own buildings in Tongli to exhibit innovative renewables technologies as well as raise to local residents awareness of the potential of renewables(see Box 12 in
266、one of the following subsections).37CHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNRoles of different layers of government and non-governmental institutionsChinas regulatory authority related to renewable energy spreads across different layers of the administrative system.The roles of provinces,citi
267、es and other actors such as research institutes and industry associations are briefly discussed below.Provinces.The five-year plans and sectoral plans released by provincial governments include targets and plans in cities.The provincial governments follow the maximum yearly new capacity installation
268、 of both utility-and distributed-scale projects that are allocated by the NEA and eligible to receive FiT and premiums.Under the allocation,provincial governments decide the list of projects that can move forward.Meanwhile,the provincial governments decide the electricity tariffs,including the peak-
269、valley tariffs which play a significant role in the electrification of heating activities.Provincial-level policies and development directives provide the framework for cities work on renewables deployment.Cities.National ministries and provinces have more roles in setting policy and mobilising fisc
270、al revenues than cities,which usually follow upper-level authorities.But cities can be more ambitious and proactive when it comes to local target setting and policy making,providing additional subsidies and other financial support and adopting renewables-friendly land-use and zoning policies.Such me
271、asures,however,depend on local development strategies,renewables resources,financial revenues as well as support from national or provincial governments.For instance,Zhangjiakou City,with support from national governments and abundant wind capacity installation,announced Chinas first 100%renewable e
272、nergy city target.Job creation and the cultivation of the renewables industry have been the incentives for local governments,who could benefit from GDP growth in the long term and tax revenues in the near term.While the NEA regulates feed-in tariff(FiT)and fiscal policies,cities can offer extra fina
273、ncial support for innovative renewable projects covering not only power generation but also clean heating and EVs.In the past,this has resulted in many pioneering local policies including reductions or exemptions to land-use or property-related taxes for a specific period for solar PV producers,clea
274、n heating operators or EV manufacturers.Land-use policy is an important tool for local governments and could influence the cost of renewables generation.Research institutes and industrial associations.These are widely involved in cities actions for renewable energy,providing expertise and knowledge
275、support.The Energy Research Institute(ERI)and the China National Renewable Energy Centre(CNREC)are the leading national energy research institutes under NDRC,conducting research and providing policy recommendations to ministries,provincial governments and cities on energy-related matters.Renewable e
276、nergy industrial associations also fulfil a number of roles,including facilitating companies engagement in renewables-related policy consultation,supporting local renewables demonstration projects as well as providing capacity building and information sharing for industrial development.For instance,
277、the Chinese Renewable Energy Industries Association(CREIA)has been providing consultation work and reporting of industry development for Chinas renewable energy industry.38CHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWN CASE STUDY 1:CHONGLI DISTRICTBACKGROUNDChongli District is one of the six distri
278、cts of Zhangjiakou City in Hebei Province(see Figure 11).This district is 50 km from downtown Zhangjiakou and has a population of 105 000(2016 data)(Zhangjiakou Municipality,2017b).Reflecting the reduced role of agriculture(typical for designation as a county in China;see Box11 for an explanation of
279、 administrative units and hierarchies)and the rising importance of industries and the tertiary sector(typical markers for a district),Chonglis status was changed to a district in 2016 but still directly reports to the Zhangjiakou Municipality.Owing to its geographic location in mountainous territory
280、,Chongli has a cold climate,with average temperatures of 12C and five months of snow cover during the year(Qingzhe et al.,2017).This makes space heating an important component of the districts energy demand.With a per capita GDP of around USD 4 500 in 2018,Chongli is less affluent than Zhangjiakou C
281、ity on average(around USD 5 200)or China as a whole(around USD9 700)(Zhangjiakou Municipality,2019a,2018).The main reason is that Zhangjiakou City was defined as an ecological conservation area and therefore restricted from hosting heavily polluting industries.At the same time,Chongli has been trans
282、itioning from primary and secondary industries to services,mainly tourism.Some iron and gold mining companies have been shut down,and between 2014 and 2017 their output reduced by more than half,with local GDP dropping(Zhangjiakou Municipality,2017a).There are two drivers of the renewable energy str
283、ategy in the Zhangjiakou and Chongli districts.One is the decision to have Zhangjiakou co-host(with Beijing)the 2022 Winter Olympics(see Box 12).The other is the designation in 2015 of Zhangjiakou as a National Renewable Energy Pilot City.Zhangjiakou City aimed to deploy 20GW of renewable capacity a
284、nd generate 40TWh electricity by 2020.It had achieved a total 15GW of cumulative installed capacity as of December 2019(Zhangjiakou Municipality,2020).The Winter Olympics and the National Pilot City status bring new economic opportunities to the district,among which tourism(skiing and related activi
285、ties)feature prominently(Chongli District Government,2018).The local GDP has risen since 2017,and the improvement of the local economy allowed Chongli District to be removed from the National Poverty Counties list in May 2019(Hebei Provincial Government,2019b).Figure 11 Chongli District in ChinaSour
286、ce:OpenStreetMap contributors|For visual purposes,maps are on different scales.Disclaimer:Boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply any formal endorsement or acceptance by IRENA.39BeijingBeijingShijiazhuangShijiazhuangTianjinTianjinZHANGJIAKOUZhangjiakouZhangjiakouCHONGLICHINESE CITIES:CHO
287、NGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNBOX 12 CHONGLI DISTRICT AND THE 2022 WINTER OLYMPICS By co-hosting the XXIV Winter Olympics in 2022,Zhangjiakou aims to achieve a low-carbon Olympic Games tied to the upscaling of renewable energy sources.This objective offers Chongli District,which will host most of the
288、 Olympic skiing events,the opportunity to accelerate renewables in its own right.Plans are to use low-carbon energy sources to supply electricity to all the venues,residential buildings and transport systems in a special,21.9 hectare zone(the Tai-zi-cheng village),to an Olympic square(1.2 hectares)a
289、s well as to local neighbourhoods(13.6hectares),and to an area set aside for offices and operational facilities(7.1hectares)(NDRC and NEA,2015).Chongli District also plans to expand this model to the entire district,in order to achieve 100%renewably generated electricity supply by 2022.All these tar
290、gets and commitments were presented in Zhangjiakou Citys National Renewable Energy Pilot City Programme,released in 2015.Integrating renewables into development plans in preparation for the 2022 Winter Olympics is in process.Zhangjiakou Municipality and the Chongli District government have been coll
291、aborating with the special office for Winter Olympic preparation and co-ordination,with the aim of renewable energy providing 100%of the electricity and heating needed for the Winter Olympic venues and buildings.Energy supply and consumptionAs is true throughout China,coal remains the dominant energ
292、y source.The total final energy consumption of Chongli was 163 195 tonnes of oil equivalent in 2016.8 Primarily used for district heating and residential heating systems but also for industrial processes in the mining sector,coal burning accounted for 80%of total final energy consumption.Chonglis el
293、ectricity mix(which accounts for about 19%of total energy demand),on the other hand,is already largely renewable energy based.The 1.1 GW of installed renewable capacity consists mainly of wind power with a small solar PV share.Chongli generates more electricity than it consumes itself and supplies o
294、ther parts of Zhangjiakou City.Petroleum and diesel are mainly consumed by the transport sector,and at a much smaller scale than coal and electricity use.As of 2016,most vehicles on the roads had internal combustion engines;the number of electric buses remains small.Installed renewable power capacit
295、y in Chongli District has reached 1.1GW,including 1 116.75MW wind power and 4.5MW solar PV.Some more capacity for hydrogen production is to be built by 2020(see Table 2).The 2020 targets foresee more than a doubling of capacity to 2.39GW(including 1 GW wind and 1.39GW solar).It is expected that elec
296、tricity production by 2022 will reach 2.13TWh,based on 2 300hours of annual grid-connection hours for wind power and 1 500 hours for solar PV,which is much higher than Chonglis estimated total electricity consumption(IRENA,2018a).It should be noted that the district,like the surrounding areas,taps i
297、nto a regional grid that is fed by a mix of sources.Renewable capacity accounted for 60%of the regional grid as of 2019,the highest share of all of Chinas regional grids and more than the national average of 40%(NEA,2020;SGCC,2019).Chongli District plans for a substantial increase in the share of re
298、newable energy as part of its electricity mix.If it reaches planned renewable capacity additions in 2022 fossil fuel use could be reduced by 770 000tonnes of coal equivalent per year,thus avoiding 2milliontonnes of CO2 emissions,20 000tonnes of sulphur dioxide emissions and 3 300tonnes of nitrogen o
299、xide emissions(IRENA,2018a).Without doubt,this would contribute significantly to the improvement of the regions air quality.8 Given limitations on available data from the national government,some data on energy demand in Chongli District are derived from local government reporting as well as estimat
300、es made for this case study.40CHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNRenewable energy potential in ChongliChongli has good solar PV and wind power potential.Chongli District is classified as a Type 2 Solar Resource Area as per national classification(see Table2 further above),with average so
301、lar radiation hours of around 2 756 to 3 062hours every year in Zhangjiakou.Solar radiation is around 1 5001 700 kilowatt hours per square metre(kWh/m2)per year,which is above Chinas average level(1 486.5 kWh/m2 in 2018).Chongli also classifies as a Type 2 Wind Resource Area,with wind resources of a
302、bout 200500kWh/m2 at a height of 70m.The wind speed in some areas can reach more than 6meters/second(m/s)at 70m height,and 7.29m/s at 80m height;this is above the national average,which was 5.5 m/s at 70 m height in 2018 (IRENA,2018b).Chongli has a relatively high rate of forest coverage,mainly on m
303、ountains,giving it potential to utilise substantial amounts of local forestry residue for biomass energy.The rate of forest coverage rose from 52%in 2015 to 67%in 2019(Chongli District Government,2020,2016).However,published plans by Zhangjiakou Municipality do not include an assessment of this loca
304、l biomass potential.ProjectsCapacity(MW)On-grid plantsQing-San-Ying wind power plant949.4Wind 1 116.8Solar 4.5Xi-Qiao-Liang wind power plant147.9Hong-Hua-Liang wind power plant9.8Wang-Shan-Ba wind power plant9.7Village-scale poverty alleviation solar power plants(15*300 kW)4.5Planned capacitySolar r
305、ooftop in Olympic special zone4.3Wind 149.5Solar 504.3Ma-Ni-Ba wind power plant49.5Wind power plants for hydrogen 100Olympic corridor solar power plant500Table 2 Installed and planned solar and onshore wind power generation in Chongli District,2018Source:Zhangjiakou Municipality,2019b.41CHINESE CITI
306、ES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNDEPLOYING RENEWABLE ENERGY IN CHONGLIZhangjiakou Municipality has adopted a number of enabling policies in support of renewables,and these are discussed below together with renewable energy targets for Chongli.This section also outlines the significance of national
307、-level policies in the context of Chongli.The roles of a number of actors and stakeholders are essential to understanding policy making in Chongli District.Below,we discuss the importance of the Chongli district government,Hebei provincial government,Zhangjiakou Municipality,the local grid company a
308、nd renewable energy companies operating locally.The role of Hebei provincial government The Hebei provincial government is the upper level administration of Zhangjiakou City and plays proactive roles in provincial level targets,strategies and planning.These in turn enable city-level renewable polici
309、es and actions.The Hebei provincial government also plays a key role in engaging the national government,regional-level authorities and grid companies,as well as pricing electricity and providing financial support for pilot projects in its jurisdiction.Roles of Zhangjiakou MunicipalityTarget setter
310、and regulator Zhangjiakou Municipality is the main body developing city-level plans(which include Chongli District),implementing all related local policies,as well as facilitating communication between all related stakeholders and co-ordinating platforms(for more on these platforms,see Box13).Under
311、its 2015 pilot plan,Zhangjiakou City committed to raising the share of renewables in terms of both capacity and percentage of final energy consumption.Renewables are to supply 55%of electricity by 2020 and 80%by 2030;40%of all residential building energy needs,50%of public buildings and 100%of publi
312、c transport energy needs by 2020;and 100%of residential public building energy needs by 2030(NDRC and NEA,2015).Renewables based electricity generation capacity is to reach 20 GW by 2020 and 50GW by 2030(NDRC and NEA,2015).As for consumption,Zhangjiakou City aimed for a 35%renewable share in total f
313、inal energy consumption by 2020,and 50%by 2030.It also aims to achieve 100%renewables in total energy consumption of public buildings and urban households by 2030,across all districts.These are very ambitious renewable targets for China,where the national target for renewables share of electricity w
314、as 28%by 2020.This affects all end uses.In heating,Zhangjiakous target to phase out all coal burning boilers,except co-generation projects,by the end of 2020 has increased pressure on the company providing heating energy as well as industries consuming energy for heating.In transport,the city furthe
315、r established a target of 100%renewable energy based urban public transport,supported by a newly released strategy and policies to promote local renewable energy based hydrogen industries and the manufacturing and deployment of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in 2019.Hebei Province42CHINESE CITIES:CHONG
316、LI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNBOX 13 THE FOUR-PARTY CO-ORDINATION PLATFORM OF ZHANGJIAKOU CITYRenewable energy developers in Chongli District are mainly involved in the construction and operations of wind and solar power plants,and thus form the on the ground backbone of efforts to promote local econom
317、ic development and achieve ambitious renewable energy goals.The companies are a mix of large national renewable energy firms and developers controlled by the provincial government,for example,joint ventures between leading developers and local investors.Following project approval by the provincial g
318、overnment,the developers sign a power purchase agreement with the national grid company and establish eligibility for FiTs,to ensure grid connection.Given the curtailment of wind and solar generation in this region due to excess capacity,project operators have been involved in a four-party co-ordina
319、tion platform to sell more electricity generation(out of the national guaranteed generation hours)at a lower price.The platform was initiated in 2018,with the aim of promoting wind electricity for heating in Zhangjiakou City,as well as reducing curtailment and utilising more renewables potential.The
320、 platform involves Zhangjiakou Municipality,the grid company,wind and solar power plant operators and heating companies as the electricity consumers.The platform facilitates the trading of wind and solar electricity between heating companies and power plants via the regional grid.The four parties fa
321、cilitate monthly electricity trading.The regional branch company of the state-owned grid company is responsible for establishing the trading rules,electricity connection,and operation and recording of the trading.Each month,Zhangjiakou Municipality aggregates demand from heating companies and other
322、consuming companies and industries.Wind and solar power plants subscribe to the aggregated electricity needs with offered prices.Heating companies and other electricity consuming companies and industries will pay the subscribed power plants through the grid company in trading prices.Trading electric
323、ity on this platform,with a tariff lower than one-third of the normal electricity tariff,could also reduce the operation cost of heating companies.Solar and wind power plants could sell more electricity,at a lower tariff,outside of guaranteed hours.Although trading on this platform is voluntary,pres
324、sure from the national policy(especially,the planned phase-out of coal-fired boilers)and the prospect of lower heat energy costs are incentives for the producers and consumer companies to participate.In 2017,52 solar and wind power plants participated in the platform.During the winter of 2018,around
325、 425heating companies and 4 226 distributed heating consumers traded more than 235gigawatt-hours(GWh)of renewables electricity on the platform.As of 2019,the platform organised 12trades with a total of 700GWh of trading electricity(Zhangjiakou Municipality,2020;Hebei Provincial Government,2019a).Zha
326、ngjiakou City43Zhangjiakou CityCHINESE CITIES:CHONGLI DISTRICT AND TONGLI TOWNFinancier and operatorRenewable energy electricity projects,including onshore wind,solar PV and municipal waste generation,are already economical for generators receiving national FiTs,as well as for the distributed genera
327、tion and household generators under provincial and city-level FiP policies.The business case for renewable-energy-sourced electricity used for space heating,on the other hand,still needs to be demonstrated.In Zhangjiakou City,the municipality and grid companies have planned significant investment of
328、 hundreds of millions of dollars for the improvement of local energy infrastructure,including district heating stations and a distributed system,as well as electricity transmission and distribution networks.Zhangjiakou provides subsidies to cover 85%of electric heating equipment of a heating company
329、 using wind power,as well as caps the electricity price at CNY0.15/kilowatt-hour(kWh),or USD0.0218/kWh for heating companies on the four-party co-ordination platform.Zhangjiakou had deployed 194hydrogen fuel cell buses for public transport by the end of 2019,with funding from both the central and it
330、s own municipal government budget(Zhangjiakou Municipality,2020).Roles of Chongli DistrictTarget setter and plannerThe district government defines its own renewable energy strategy and targets.However,it has little in the way of independent policy making authority,especially when it comes to fiscal
331、and financial aspects.Therefore,collaboration with upper-level governmental authorities,including Zhangjiakou Municipality and the Hebei provincial government,with the aim to support comprehensive planning in Zhangjiakou City is key.The district government does have roles in district planning as wel
332、l as managing and facilitating the implementation of projects locally,in collaboration with Zhangjiakou Municipality,the grid company and other key stakeholders.Renewable energy targets for electricity,heating and transport in Chongli are included in the Renewable Energy Demonstration Plan of Zhangj
333、iakou City,which was announced by the State Council of China and released by Zhangjikou Municipality with support from the provincial government.The plan establishes targets for reaching a very high share of renewables for Chongli District,in the context of planning to host the Winter Olympics(as discussed in Box13).According to the Low-Carbon Olympics Plan,electricity will be supplied mainly from
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