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1、Equity in Electric Vehicle Charging InfrastructureSuzanne Russo,Beia Spiller,and Rachel WilwerdingWorking Paper 24-14 August 2024About the Authors Suzanne Russo is a fellow at Resources for the Future and the director of the Environmental Justice Initiative,focusing on equitability in the climate tr

2、ansition.Previously,Russo has served on several nonprofit board of directors and consulted for others,helping to increase the impact of under-represented communities in deciding how to mitigate climate change,improve local health factors,and transition to decarbonized systems.Beia Spiller is a fello

3、w and the director of the Transportation Program at Resources for the Future.Her recent research is focused around electric vehicles and environmental justice,exploring some of the most pressing issues around electric car,truck and bus adoption.Her publications range across the energy space,with a l

4、arge focus on identifying environmental,community and health impacts of renewable energy resources and energy policies.Rachel Wilwerding is a a Ph.D.Candidate in Economics at Fordham University.Her research interests are environmental and health economics,with a focus on the relationship between env

5、ironmental hazards and health outcomes in urban areas,and what policies may be effective at mitigating these effects.Acknowledgements We thank staff at the following organizations for their time and insights into how to consider equity within charging station investments:District of Columbias Depart

6、ment of Energy and Environment,Dunamis Charge,Greenlining Institute,New Urban Mobility Alliance,Rocky Mountain Institute,Southeast Energy Efficiency Alliance and Dunamis Charge.We thank representatives from Consolidated Edison,Ecology Action,itselectric,Mercedes-Benz and SWTCH for taking time to spe

7、ak with us about their charging station investments and business models.We also thank Alan Jenn,Regan Patterson,Jim Boyd,Marc Conte,Janis Barry,and Subha Mani for input to and feedback on the paper.All errors are our own.About RFFResources for the Future(RFF)is an independent,nonprofit research inst

8、itution in Washington,DC.Its mission is to improve environmental,energy,and natural resource decisions through impartial economic research and policy engagement.RFF is committed to being the most widely trusted source of research insights and policy solutions leading to a healthy environment and a t

9、hriving economy.Working papers are research materials circulated by their authors for purposes of information and discussion.They have not necessarily undergone formal peer review.The views expressed here are those of the individual authors and may differ from those of other RFF experts,its officers

10、,or its directors.Sharing Our WorkOur work is available for sharing and adaptation under an Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International(CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)license.You can copy and redistribute our material in any medium or format;you must give appropriate credit,provide a link to the lice

11、nse,and indicate if changes were made,and you may not apply additional restrictions.You may do so in any reasonable manner,but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.You may not use the material for commercial purposes.If you remix,transform,or build upon the material,you

12、 may not distribute the modified material.For more information,visit https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.Equity in Electric Vehicle Charging InfrastructureSuzanne Russo*,Beia Spiller,Rachel WilwerdingAugust 28,2024AbstractMajorinvestmentsinelectricvehicle(EV)chargingstationnetworkswill

13、berequiredtosupportwidespreadadoptionofEVs.IncreasingEVadoptioncanhelpimproveairqualityand,inturn,healthoutcomes,partic-ularly for communities overburdened by transportation pollution.The creation of a widespread public EVcharging station network presents new economic and business opportunities.Thus

14、,an opportunity existsfor society to leverage expenditures associated with the electric transition,particularly federal infrastruc-ture investments through programs like the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act(IIJA),to improve eq-uity outcomes for communities and households that have been overbur

15、dened by transportation pollutiondue to compounding inequities and structural racism across society.We provide a framework(developedthrough a literature review and interviews with community-based and non-governmental organizations,EV charging station companies,utilities,and leading researchers)for u

16、nderstanding how charging sta-tion investments in urban areas could help reduce existing inequities or may inadvertently exacerbateinequities if a careful approach is not taken.*Resources for the FutureFordham University11IntroductionThe transportation system in the United States is riddled with ine

17、quities brought about in large part bystructural racism(Bullard et al.,2004).Such inequities abound in urban settings,where communities ofcolor face higher levels of pollution from transportation and worse health outcomes from that exposure.These transportation-related inequities interact with inequ

18、ities produced by other sectors of the economyand society in the United States,exacerbating disparities across communities.Understanding and measur-ing underlying inequities is key to addressing them,particularly in light of the clean energy transition andthe investments that will be required to dec

19、arbonize our society.In the transportation sector,a major transformation is underway as the United States strives to replacegasoline vehicleswithelectricvehicles(EVs).Approaching this transition withan understanding ofunderly-ing societal inequities created by structural racism presents an opportuni

20、ty to reduce inequities within thetransportation sector and beyond.However,if these inequities are ignored,policies and funding to advancethe electric transition can increase disparities in health,wealth,and job creation outcomes.The massive investments required to support the electric vehicle trans

21、ition include the build-out of anational public charging station network.A study by the US Department of Energys National RenewableEnergy Laboratory in 2023 estimates that the United States needs to install approximately 1.2 million pub-lic charging station ports by 2030 to power the future EV fleet

22、 effectively(Wood et al.,2023).According tothe study,the investment costs of achieving this widespread network are estimated to be up to$55 billion.The federal government has already allocated$7.5 billion to public charging station investments throughthe Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act of 202

23、1,which provides funding for states to install fast charg-ers on major roadways and highway networks(through the National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure(NEVI)Formula Program,$5 billion)and Level 2 chargers across communities(through the Charging and RefuelingInfrastructure(CFI)Grant Program,$2.5 bi

24、llion).Given the signifi cant expenditures involved in develop-ing this charging station network,identifying ways to maximize the benefi ts of these investments is key tooptimizing the return on social spending.Yet maximizing benefi ts on net does not ensure that these investments reduce existing in

25、equities.Asclearly indicated through federal policy-making and funding allocations via the Justice40 initiative,the USgovernment intends to target at least 40 percent of benefi ts from many federal investments to“disadvan-taged communities.”1Specifi cally,Executive Order 14008 requires that certain

26、federal investments,includ-ing climate change,clean energy,clean transportation,and remediation and reduction of legacy pollution,meet the Justice 40 rule that disadvantaged communities2receive up to 40 percent of all benefi ts from these1The government uses the Climate and Economic Justice Screenin

27、g tool to identify communities that may be considered“disadvan-taged”viaawidevarietyofmetrics,includingincomeandbeingoverburdenedwithpotentialexposuretopollutionandenvironmentalhazards or underserved in workforce development,housing,or transportation(Council on Environmental Quality,2022).2In this p

28、aper,we will use the term underserved rather than disadvantaged to more accurately reflect the historic and enduringlegacy of discrimination,segregation,and under-investment which has shaped many historic and current communities of color and2investments.Approximately$40 billion has been allocated fr

29、om the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 to dis-advantaged communities to date.CFI and NEVI are subject to the Justice40 requirements.Justice40 requirements for CFI and NEVI spending raise the question of how we can ensure that invest-ments in public charging stations benefi t underserved communities

30、and move the needle toward reducinginequities.Thefederalgovernment,however,hasnotdefi nedwhat“benefi t”means.Forexample,onecouldinterpret this rule to mean that 40 percent of all public charging stations need to be placed in underservedcommunities.Yet,manyotherwaysexisttoidentifyandevaluatethecommun

31、itybenefi ts.Arethesestationsserving local households?How do these local households and businesses benefi t from the investments,anddo these benefi ts reduce inequities?Merely installing a charging station in a community does not ensurethat benefi tshowever we defi ne themwill accrue to those who li

32、ve near it or be truly equitable.For EVcharginginfrastructureinvestmentstobetrulyequitable,theywillneedtoresultinimprovedtransportationequity within the hosting community.What does such an investment mean in communities with no or verylow EV ownership?What does it mean in the context of communities

33、that are dependent on public transit?Does equality of access to EV charging across neighborhoods mean equity has been achieved?The answers to these questions have largely been left up to local transportation planners and govern-ments,3sometimes with input from community members.Although access to pu

34、blic charging stations can-not in isolation solve transportation and environmental injustices,it can be a key component of a solutions-oriented framework.In this paper,we discuss how policymakers can consider investments in charging sta-tions through a lens of equity and social justice.Theterms“equi

35、ty”and“justice”canseemsubjectiveandvague,withdifferentphilosophicalapproachesdefi ning equity and theories of justice in ways that can be contradictory(Lewis et al.,2021).However,bor-rowing from the defi nition of energy justice as articulated by the Initiative for Energy Justice(Baker et al.,2019),

36、a transportation justice planning framework seeks to achieve equity in both the social and economicparticipation in transportation systems and associated energy systems,while also remediating social,eco-nomic,and health burdens on those that are disproportionately harmed by transportation systems.We

37、propose a practical approach for considering equity in public charging station investment within urbancontexts4using Table 1 as a guiding framework.Specifi cally,we identify inequities that interact with thetransportation system and discuss how such investments can improve or exacerbate these,which

38、includeinequities related to air pollution exposure,economic development,wealth opportunities affected by hous-ing stock and ownership,and mobility needs and access.Focusing on these inequities and working withlow-income communities.The term disadvantaged implies a passive state of being while the t

39、erm underserved reflects the cumula-tive policy and societal choices that defi ne different outcomes for residents of different communities.3A coalition of public and private organizations recently developed the National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Equity Dashboardin an effort to track how local

40、 governments approach identifying,quantifying,and tracking the Justice 40 benefi ts associated with theNEVI funded investments.Because each government will defi ne and quantify these benefi ts in a different manner,the dashboardallows the public to compare approaches across jurisdiction.4We focus he

41、re on urban areas rather than a broader framing including rural and suburban geographies.The equity concerns acrossgeographic locations are important to consider but outside the scope of this paper.3communities can illuminate pathways to ensuring that charging station investments reduce inequities a

42、ndimprove outcomes for all.Moreover,bringing local communities directly into the decisionmaking processcreates opportunities to improve procedural justice.In Table 1,we summarize inequities in the transportation system,factors that compound them,waysthat they may be exacerbated by nonstrategic charg

43、ing station investment in underserved communities,and proposals for strategic investment that could reduce them.A clear pattern emerges:if we assumesimple interpretations of the Justice40 rule,whereby we take“40 percent of all benefi ts from clean energyinvestments”to mean either 40 percent of clean

44、 energy funding allocated for projects in or 40 percent ofall funded chargers being placed in underserved communities,then these investments have great poten-tial to exacerbate transportation inequities rather than benefi t the community.This requires us to considerwhether allocated funding for char

45、ging station installation itself can qualify as net benefi ts in these com-munities without additional policies,interventions,and community support.For this reason,we proposecareful consideration of how to defi ne and measure the full array of benefi ts that can emerge through in-creased charging st

46、ation investment and use as well as how these benefi ts can reduce existing inequities.The rest of the paper proceeds as follows:Section 2 describes the range of inequities faced by under-served communities and how these interact with the transportation system,providing a framework as tohow equity a

47、nd justice considerations might be incorporated in transportation policy.Section 3 exploresdifferent tenets of justice and how charging station investments can be considered within this framing.Sec-tion 4 qualitatively evaluates projects that received funding through the fi rst grant round of CFI,wi

48、th dis-cussions as to what extent the proposals do,or do not,address transportation justice and equity concerns.Finally,Section 5 summarizes and concludes the discusion.2Compounded Inequities in the Transportation SectorAdvancing equity through charging station investments requires considering multi

49、ple dimensions of equityand justice within the broader transportation setting.The US transportation system has a legacy of per-petuating inequities and racism that continues today.Broadly,much United States transportation policyfavors the mobility needs of affluent,suburban,and white communities ove

50、r urban dwellers and racial mi-norities(Golub et al.,2013).For example,transportation policy in the early and mid-1900s led to greaterinvestment in highways and expressways,frequently(and deliberately,as Marable(2015)argues)at the ex-pense of lower-income communities and communities of color.New hig

51、hways cut through communities ofcolor,fracturing important social structures,and displacing households(Archer,2020).When paired withthe legacy of structural racism within the housing sector(e.g.,redlining,reduced mortgage approvals,lowercredit;see Dickerson(2020),this results in communities of color

52、 being located closer to major roadways,4highways,and truck depots,thus resulting in greater exposure to traffi c-related air pollution(Tian et al.,2013;Woghiren-Akinnifesi,2013;Kheirbek et al.,2016).Inequities caused by highway displacement are exacerbated by decisions to prioritize public transit

53、in-vestments that improve travel times and accessibility for white,suburban residents over residents locatedin urban and underserved communities(Spieler,2020).Transportation planners have cited the need to lurewealthier drivers out of their cars and into public transit to reduce congestion and emiss

54、ions,5resulting ingreater investments targeted at this goal.Public transit routes serving whiter,wealthier communities havebeen found to provide better accessibility,quality,and frequency than routes serving communities of color(Bullard et al.,2004;Borowski et al.,2018;Bittencourt and Giannotti,2021

55、;Maharjan et al.,2024).This re-sults in longer travel times and reduced mobility for communities of color compared to white,wealthiercommunities.Structural racism and the legacy of its impacts in other parts of society exacerbate these issues.Thelegacy of interconnected injustices driven by racist l

56、aws and practices persists within many historical com-munities of color(Rey and Knapp,2024)and thus requires consideration of community needs and existinginequities that can result in unique impacts on communities from public EV charger installations.As willbe further discussed in Section 3,to achie

57、ve recognition justice,a core tenet of justice that emphasizes theneed to recognize the underlying inequities that different communities face,related to charging station in-vestments,policymakers will need to identify underlying societal issues that have led to disparities.Wehighlight this in the fi

58、 rst three columns of Table 1,demonstrating how inequities across different parts ofsociety compound with each other to create disparities in outcomes for communities of color.6For example,racial discrimination in auto loans and racial wealth gaps have resulted in lower auto own-ership rates and thu

59、s,EV ownership in communities of color(Gautier and Zenou,2010).Lower-quality pub-lictransitinunderservedcommunitiescompoundswithincreasedinvestmentinhighwaystoresultinlowermobility opportunities.Overinvesting in roadway infrastructure while reducing resources for public transitsystems in urban areas

60、7or deploying more resources in public transit systems to connect suburban neigh-borhoods with city centers(Bullard et al.,2004),combine with existing inequities to create a fundamentallyinequitable transportation system.Similarly,inequitiesinthehousingsector,asdiscussedabove,whenpaired withother so

61、cietal inequitiesthat have contributed to wealth gaps across race,contribute to outcomes whereby households located incommunities of color are more likely to rent than own their housing structures and to live in multifamilyhomes.This has important implications for charging station investments,as hou

62、seholds that rent will beless likely to access private charging opportunities and thus will depend at a greater rate on public charging5See,for example,this New York Times article.6For an in-depth discussion of how inequities can accumulate to create greater disparities for communities of color,see

63、Bakkensenet al.(2024).7See,for example,https:/inequality.org/research/public-transit-inequality/.5Table 1.Unique Considerations for Public Charging Station(CS)Investment in Historic Communities of Color Potential equity impacts of CS investment Inequity Compounding factor Resulting Impact In exacerb

64、ating inequity In improving equity Highway infrastructure cutting through communities of color Racist housing policies Closer proximity to major roadways;segregation CS are built in EJ communities,leading to greater traffic and pollution exposure The community is part of the decision-making process

65、around where to site CS to reduce traffic and associated pollution exposure.Racial discrimination in car loans Racial wealth gaps Less likely to own car;less likely to afford EVs Installation of CS in neighborhoods where few people can own EVs may reduce capacity on local grid infrastructure,potenti

66、ally exacerbating reliability issues in these neighborhoods.This can also cause cost-shifts if these upgrades increase electric tariffs.If CS are paired with co-located solar,impacts to grids can be reduced,thus reducing cost shifts.Utility programs that help reduce the cost of electricity to these

67、communities will also help mitigate increased electric bills caused by EV charging demands.Racist housing policies Racial wealth gaps Less likely to own home,have private parking,have private charging Because the cost of using public CS is generally higher than the per kWh cost of charging overnight

68、 at home,BIPOC EV owners are likely to pay more for refueling than white and wealthy households.Charging station investments can also lead to gentrification through increases in local property values.Alternative ownership models of charging stations and strategic placement of CS in libraries,churche

69、s,and other community centers could help reduce gentrification outcomes while providing access to lower-cost charging opportunities.Lower quality public transit Highway investments Higher cost of travel,lower mobility CS are built in EJ communities,leading to greater traffic and thus increasing trav

70、el costs due to congestion.CS investments focus on improving micro-mobility through expanded electric bike and/or scooter stations.CS investments that enable utilization by public electric buses and/or shuttles can help improve community mobility.Greater pollution exposure Lower health care quality/

71、access Worse health outcomes CS are built,leading to greater EV demand(and lower tailpipe emissions)in wealthier communities,and higher emissions from power plants that affect EJ communities Targeted investments in CS for MHDVs can help reduce trucks diesel emissions in EJ communities.CS co-located

72、with solar/storage to reduce reliance on dirty grid.Targeted investments and policies to reduce grid emissions can mitigate these issues as well.Discriminatory hiring practices Discriminatory housing policies Reduced access to jobs and therefore reduced economic development opportunities for the com

73、munity.CS are owned and operated by major corporations who dont employ local workers,and economic benefits do not flow to local businesses Working with the community to design CS solutions and supporting local entrepreneurs can generate new economic opportunities.Ensuring training and community outr

74、each for jobs in the CS industry can improve local job opportunities and access.Table 16stations.Finally,health disparities,in part due to inequities in health care access,quality,and affordability(Riley,2012;Fiscella and Sanders,2016),interact with increased risk of traffi c pollution exposure to c

75、reate worsehealth impacts in underserved communities.8Epidemiological research has demonstrated that when ex-posed to the same level of pollution,Black individuals over 65 are three times more likely to die from itthan their white counterparts(Di et al.,2017).Thus,improvements in air quality can cre

76、ate outsized healthbenefi ts for underserved communities(Spiller et al.,2021).3Incorporating Equity and Justice Considerations in TransportationPolicyIn the shift toward vehicle electrifi cation,society has the opportunity to alleviate some of the com-pounded inequities in the transportation system

77、by adhering to strategies focused on accessibility,afford-ability,and economic prosperity in underserved communities.Truly equitable siting of charging stationscanspuranoutcomewhereallcommunitiesarepositionedtobenefi teconomicallyfromthesitingofcharg-ing stations in their neighborhoods.To ensure tha

78、t these investments improve the equity of our transportation systems,we posit that pol-icy makers and community planners will need to consider multiple dimensions of equity and justice.Coretenets include recognition justice(considering which groups are affected by the inequity),distributionaljustice

79、(identifying the inequities across space),procedural justice(ensuring that communities have a say inactions and policies that affect them)(Jenkins et al.,2016),and restorative justice(working with the affectedgroupstoidentifystrategiesforremediation)(Menkel-Meadow,2007).Inthissection,wediscusshowfoc

80、us-ing on accessibility,affordability,and economic development through a social justice lens can help achievemore equitable outcomes.3.1Recognition JusticeRecognitionjusticerequiresconsideringwhichgroupsandindividualsareaffectedbyexistinginequities.WeuseTable1asaframeworktoidentifyinequitiesandcompo

81、undingfactorsthatexacerbatethem.Itisimpor-tant to recognize that many of these inequities and factors are multifaceted and overlap.For example,racialwealth gaps compound inequities in racial discrimination in car loans,home loans,and housing policies.Racist housing policies compound inequities in em

82、ployment opportunities and pollution exposure fromhighways built through environmental justice(EJ)communities.Proximity to highways(a major source ofpollution)can lead to dangerous and costly health outcomes as well as reduced employment opportunities8Forexample,ratesofasthma(adiseaseheavilycausedby

83、pollutionexposure)arehigherinBlackthanwhitepopulations,evenaftercontrolling for sociodemographics(Litonjua et al.,1999;Akinbami et al.,2014).7that result in lower household income,both of which can exacerbate the racial wealth gap.This income gaphas led to underserved households being more likely to

84、 purchase used vehicles and to own fewer vehicles(Molloy et al.,2024).Given that EVs are generally more expensive and have not robustly populated the usedvehicle market,adoption rates for EVs are lower in underserved communities.Because of this,householdsin underserved communities will be less likel

85、y to use EV chargers.Therefore,simply installing EV chargerswill not necessarily lead to local benefi ts.Rather,as we discuss in the following sections,strategic chargerplacement can help boost local economies,and alternative ownership structures could bring revenues tolocal building and homeowners.

86、Compounding inequities influence the lives of those living in underserved communities in several ways.We focus on some of these in the context of charging station placement.Racial wealth gaps and racist hous-ing policies have resulted in disparities in US home ownership rates,with white households r

87、ates at 73.8percent in 2023,compared to only 49.8 percent and 45.9 percent for Hispanic and Black households,re-spectively(Goldsmith and Onuaja,2024).Communities of color have 617 percent more multifamily homescompared to predominantly white neighborhoods(Yang et al.,2023).Multifamily occupants are

88、less likelyto have private off-street parking where accessible charging stations can be installed and will therefore de-pend moreuponpublicchargingstations as the transition to EVs occurs compared to wealthier households,which are more likely to own their homes(Edelberg et al.(2021)and install priva

89、te charging stations.3.2Distributional JusticeAchieving distributional justice requires acknowledging inequities across locations and demographics andtargeting strategies to improve equitable outcomes.In the setting of charging station investments,distribu-tional justice entails ensuring that the be

90、nefi ts and costs are equitably distributed across all communities.In this section we discuss three facets of distributional justice that can contribute to equitable outcomes:accessibility,affordability,and economic opportunities from EV charging station placement and/or owner-ship.3.2.1Accessibilit

91、yAccessibility of charging stations requires proximity to themspecifi cally,charging stations must be nearwhereEVdriversliveorwork.9However,disparitiesinproximityforunderservedcommunitiesarecommonacross the United States and worldwide.An Axios study from January 2023 identifi ed a signifi cant dispa

92、ritysuchthatwhiteandwealthyUScensustractswerealmost1.5timesmorelikelytohousestations(Fitzpatrick9Accessibility also requires plug compatibility.No singular type of plug exists for all EVs;rather,many EV manufacturers have de-veloped different,proprietary plugs.This problem interacts with the issue o

93、f proximity:if a charging station is built near your home,but your vehicle cannot use it,then you are unable to benefi t from it.Finally,for charging to be truly accessible,EV drivers need to beable to access fast charging stations when they need it,as Level 2 chargers may require the driver to park

94、 for more than 8 hours to fullycharge their battery.8et al.,2023).This number varies signifi cantly across cities,with Philadelphia having the largest disparityacross locations(3.9 times more likely to have charging stations).Disparities in proximity have been foundin many cities across the country,

95、occurring along racial lines,such as in California(Hsu and Fingerman(2021);Roy and Law(2022)and New York City(Khan et al.(2022),by income distribution(Min et al.(2023);Hardman et al.(2021);Caulfi eld et al.(2022),and across the urbanrural divide(Carlton and Sultana,2022;Lee and Brown,2021).Building

96、new charging stations in underserved communities will increase the distributional justice as-pect of these investments by increasing accessibility to charging.The CFI funds specifi cally seek to do this,with a signifi cant portion of the investments required to go into areas that the federal governm

97、ent labelsas disadvantaged.However,as discussed,proximity is necessary but insuffi cient to ensure the rollout ofcharging stations is truly equitable.3.2.2AffordabilityWhen lower-income households seek EVs,their greater reliance upon public charging stations means theywill pay more than those with a

98、ccess to at-home charging because station operators need to recover thecosts associated with the investment while also paying for the electricity consumed by EV drivers.10Thisraises the issue of charging affordability.For the reasons previously discussed,an inherent inequity arises in affordability

99、of charging based uponrates of homeownership and single-family versus multi-family dwelling types.Households that own or livein multifamily dwellings will rely on public charging stations and will therefore pay more to charge thanhouseholds that primarily charge at private stations(typically install

100、ed in a personal garage).11Therefore,wealthierhouseholdsaremorelikelytobenefi teconomicallyfromvehicleelectrifi cation(Dixonetal.,2020).If the cost of charging at public stations is very high,it could deter EV adoption.While public chargingstations owned by private companies will always be more expe

101、nsive than charging at home,understand-ing how public charging prices vary across neighborhoods and between communities that are underservedcompared to those that are not is important to further assess affordability disparities.Affordability is key in developing an equitable charging station network

102、,and so is price transparency.Itcan be diffi cult for EV drivers to ascertain the price of charging at a station before arriving at the charger.A driver may not know what the price will be until charging begins,particularly in settings where the pricevaries by hour,which is common with Tesla superch

103、argers12but not exclusive to Tesla.The authors have10Exceptions would occur when the charging station operator recovered costs through ancillary sales rather than electricity sales(such as is common in gasoline stationssee Sartorius et al.(2007),resulting in a subsidized charging price.Similarly,ver

104、ticallyintegratedcompanies,suchasTeslawhichprovidesboththevehicleandchargingsolutionshaveofferedtime-limitedfreechargingas an incentive to purchase the vehicle.11Evidence also indicates that lower-income households face higher electricity prices in certain deregulated markets(Kahn-Lang,2022).Thus,in

105、 certain utility territories,focusing on reducing their electric costs will be key to ensuring charging affordability.12See Teslas webpage referring to time-of-use pricing.9Figure 1:PlugNYC Signage,Park Slope,2023seenPlugNYCFlochargersinNYCthatdonotdisplayhourlyorkWhpricinginformation(Figure1).Thela

106、ckof price transparency can be confusing and disincentivize EV adoption by making it diffi cult for individualsto understand the costs of charging an EV relative to the costs of fi lling the tank of an internal combustionengine vehicle(ICEV).Increased education on charge pricing and better price tra

107、nsparency are importantsteps in making charging stations more accessible.Furthermore,taking steps to improve price transparencymay induce competition as station operators compete for customers by advertising lower prices.Thesemore affordable prices would benefi t all EV drivers,particularly those wh

108、o do not have the option to chargeat home.To maximize the economic benefi ts of adopting EVs and ensure that lower-income and underservedcommunities can benefi t from the transition,the EV charge price must be affordable,transparent,and easyto understand.Legislation requiring clearly visible pricing

109、 by hour or kWh,similar to gas stations,mayimprove accessibility by helping EV owners and prospective adopters understand the cost of charging.Im-provededucationatthetimeofEVpurchaseonhowtochargeit,batterymaintenance,andpricingconsider-ations when choosing where to charge can also improve economic o

110、utcomes associated with EV ownership.As drivers have been fueling their cars with gasoline or diesel priced by the gallon until now,additionaleducation on how EV charge pricing works and compares with gasoline pricing could empower potentialadopters with important information they may need when deci

111、ding whether to purchase an EV,while alsohelping low-income EV owners identify lowest cost charging solutions.Continued legislative efforts to ensure that EV drivers will be able to use any charger would also aidin efforts to maximize benefi ts by increasing competition across charging station provi

112、ders.More broadly,10policies that seek to increase competition and entry from charging station operators can also help bringprices down,as operators seek to increase throughput by ensuring that their stations are reliable and af-fordable.Although these actions would help improve the economics for an

113、 individual purchasing an EV,the added equity benefi t is clear:becauseunderserved communities will be more likely to rely upon publicchargingstations,reducingthecostofdoingsoimprovesthebenefi tsofEVownershipandhelpsreducecostinequities related to the electrifi cation transition.3.2.3EV ownershipThe

114、 primary way that communities benefi t from charging station investments is through their ability torecharge their EVs.However,EV ownership has tended to be concentrated in wealthier households(Boren-stein and Davis,2016),due to the higher cost of purchasing a new EV relative to a gasoline model and

115、 thelack of a robust,low-cost used EV market.A report from Kelley Blue Book shows that as of May 2023,theaverage cost of a new ICEV was$48,528 compared to$55,488 for a new EV,before factoring in the$7,500federal tax credit or other incentives from state and local governments(Heaps,2023).Although EVs

116、 havebeen getting closer to ICEVs in terms of price(Ewing,2023)and the federal tax credit reduces this gap fur-ther,evidence suggests that those who need the tax credit the most,use it the least.Borenstein and Davis(2016),for example,fi nd that in the United States,buyers in the top income quintile

117、received approximately90 percent of tax credits issued to incentivize the purchase of EVs.FailuretoadvanceEVadoptioninlower-incomecommunitiesandcommunitiesofcoloratarateatleastcommensurate with white and wealthier neighborhoods perpetuates disparate pollution exposure from thetransportation sector w

118、ithin underserved communities(Kheirbek et al.,2016).Although EV adoption inwhite and wealthier communities may reduce TRAP and greenhouse gases in those neighborhoods,it doesnotaddress,andmayexacerbate,thepollutionexposureinequitiesbroughtonbythetransportationsystem.For example,if marginal consumpti

119、on of electricity is not powered by clean energy,greater demand for EVscanincreasepowerplantemissions(Hollandetal.,2016),whichhasbeendemonstratedtoinequitablyaffecthistorically marginalized communities(Spiller et al.,2021).13Achieving equitable adoption of EV ownership and outcomes associated with t

120、he transition will requirepolicyshiftsthatcanresultinreducedlocaltransportationpollutionandimprovedlocalairquality.Onewayto do so is by targeting EV tax credits and subsidies specifi cally toward low-and middle-income householdsto make the up-front costs of purchase more affordable(Muehlegger and Ra

121、pson,2022;Allen and Gibson,2022).Furthermore,a priority consideration for equitable transportation electrifi cation is rapidly transi-tioning the electric grid system to renewable power to avoid the cumulative burdens of increased emissions13Cleaning the electric grid could also have important equit

122、y impacts beyond those from interaction with the transportation system,via changes in air pollution disparities and potential impacts on electricity prices;however,the equity benefi ts will depend on thedecarbonization strategy and approach(Bennear,2022;Burtraw and Roy,2023;Spurlock et al.,2022).11a

123、nd air pollution in overburdened communities(Holland et al.,2016).3.3Procedural JusticeAs government investments in charging stations accelerate,it is vital to note that this can exacerbate in-equities if local conditions are not thoughtfully considered.Ensuring that communities are a central,active

124、part of decisionmaking around where(or whether)to place charging stations will be key to achieving anequitable transition,as communities are best able to identify how these investments can improve outcomeslocally.Procedural justice requires direct input from community members on planning and siting

125、decisions(Brown,2022).The Greenlining Institute defi nes a mobility equity framework where community needs areidentifi ed and communities are able to participate in the decisionmaking process(Creger et al.,2018).Sim-ilarly,Stern et al.(2020)defi ne transportation equity as when“transportation decisi

126、ons are made with deepandmeaningfulcommunityinputthatleadstotransportationnetworksandlandusestructuresthatsupporthealth and well-being,environmental sustainability,and equitable access to resources and opportunities”(page 3).In the framework of charging station investments,local communities have an

127、understanding informedbylivedexperienceofthetransportationchallengesanddisparitieswithintheirneighborhoodorcity.Community-engaged research is therefore critical for fi nding solutions that address how public EV charging stationscouldimproveorimpairlocalequityandjustice(Spilleretal.,2024).Table1prese

128、ntsanexampleofhowthisapproach can be framed and applied to individual communities.A key insight brought into focus throughthe exercise of creating this Table is that placing public EV charging stations in disadvantaged communitiesdoes not itself deliver equitable outcomes.Rather,communities will nee

129、d to be actively engaged in deci-sionmaking around placement and ownership models to ensure that the chargers contribute to a more justtransportation system and reduce inequities.Fundamentally,untilgreaterEVadoptionisachievedinunderservedcommunities,residentswillbenefi tmostfromchargingstationinvest

130、mentswhenlocalvoicesinfluencedecisionsaboutchargertypeandplace-ment,and when there is transparency in costs that might be borne by the community from public chargerinstallations.For example,focusing on charging stations that are compatible with micro-mobility devices,such as e-bikes,e-scooters,and s

131、mall-scale electric public transit,may help bring about more equitableoutcomes for areas with low incomes and/or low vehicle ownership rates by improving mobility options.Alternatively,focusing on building charging stations for medium-and heavy-duty vehicles could have anoutsized impact on pollution

132、 exposure in underserved communities,given their greater proximity to de-pots and major roadways transited by large trucks.Charging station investments could thus look radicallydifferent across locations when communities are able to guide decisions about these investments.123.4Restorative JusticeRes

133、torative justice creates opportunities to improve environmental and social conditions within commu-nities,including job and enterprise creation and remediation of legacy pollution(Department of Energy,2022).A restorative justice framework leverages the analysis and community input undertaken in the

134、therecognition justice,distributional justice,and procedural justice phases of project planning to establishneighborhood-specifi c goals that benefi t affected communities and remediate historical harms.A restora-tive justice approach designed with the affected community moves beyond the promise of

135、a just transitionto the reality of how specifi c policies and projects will deliver economic and social benefi ts to a communitywhile remediating past harms(Hazrati and Heffron,2021).A transitiontoacleantransportationsystem thatupholds restorative justice requires local governments,regulatory bodies

136、,and philanthropy to consider(in conjunction with communities)the opportunities foreconomic growth,enterprise creation,and wealth-building along with improvements in air quality andreduction of pollution from the transportation sector.In the context of EV charging station investments,restorativejust

137、iceprinciplesprovideaframeworkthatbuildsonrecognitionjusticetoenabletheco-developmentwith communities of a vision and plan for transportation electrifi cation that includes investments in publiccharging infrastructure.Inparticular,jobcreationandwealth-buildingopportunitiesarecentraltoconsideringcomm

138、unityben-efi ts from public investments in electric transportation infrastructure.Job creation assessments can be car-ried out and shared with community members to provide a common understanding of local job creationpotential,salary and ownership opportunities,required training,and mapping of how jo

139、bs and enterpriseownership can accrue to community members.A new class of technicians will be required to maintain thevast number of chargers to be installed in the coming years.Ke et al.(2022)estimate that approximately1.1 million jobs would be created by a national rollout of 500,000 new charging

140、stations,including both thedirect and indirect jobs.In a more local analysis,Argonne National Lab leveraged a new tool(JOBS EVSE)to predict the numberof jobs that would be created in Virginia from a state-led rollout of almost 30,000 public and workplacecharging stations and almost 150,000 home char

141、gers.It found that these would yield 274,000291,000 jobsover a decade.14Public and private sector investment within underserved communities for job training andjob placement programs that can capture the employment benefi ts of expanded EV charging stations couldcontribute to an equitable charging s

142、tation strategy.Providing additional training on business ownershipand management as well as access to start-up capital can help ensure that economic opportunities are notlimited to jobs but also include wealth-building-as discussed further in Section 3.4.1.In sum,to uphold restorative justice,publi

143、c EV charging station investments will need to remediate past14https:/www.anl.gov/article/estimating-the-economic-impact-of-electric-vehicle-charging-stations13harmswithinunderservedcommunities,specifi callytransportationandmobilityoptionsandtransportation-relatedairpollution.Workinginpartnershipwit

144、hcommunities,planningagenciesandcompaniescaniden-tify the deployment conditions that improve mobility options and affordability while analyzing impacts ontraffi cflowandassociatedairqualitywithinaneighborhoodChinnametal.(2016).Ifplanningisundertakenwith serious consideration to impacts across these

145、metrics(mobility choice,affordability,traffi c congestion,and air quality),then charging station investments have the potential to achieve improved transportationand justice outcomes while also contributing to decarbonization objectives.3.4.1Public Charging Station Business ModelsCharging station ow

146、nership models are another consideration to explore for community economic benefi t.Currentlymostchargingstationsareunlikelytobeprofi tableorprovidemuchrevenuetotheoperatorintheearly years when throughput remains low(Pardo-Bosch et al.,2021),but they can still provide opportunitiesto create wealth.I

147、n the long run,the charging station operator will receive revenues and profi ts as through-put increases.In the short run,nearby businesses may reap benefi ts from close proximity to chargers.Giventhe longer time it takes to refuel an EV compared to a ICEV,public charging stations can stimulate the

148、localeconomy as drivers visit shops and restaurants during their wait,thus creating indirect jobs.Although electric utilities in many states are prohibited by regulation from owning public EV chargingstations,novel publicprivate partnership opportunities and cooperative business models enabled throu

149、ghpublic support and training are worth consideration.In 2021,a private provider,Flo,engaged in a pub-licprivate partnership demonstration project with Consolidated Edison to invest in curbside charging inNew York City.These publicly accessible chargers are owned by Flo,and the revenues are split be

150、tween thetwo.An alternative arrangement for city government investments would be community revenue-sharingagreements or cooperative ownership of the stations such that the community can profi t.A community revenue-sharing program can directly benefi t underserved communities.Publicly acces-sible cha

151、rging stations in underserved communities could attract outside EV ownership and increase travelto and traffi c within disadvantaged areas.This can exacerbate inequities,with the potential for greater con-gestion and less available parking,thereby negatively affecting local residents,who are less li

152、kely to own EVsand thus benefi t directly.Revenue-sharing agreements can compensate local communities for these neg-ative impacts,and have been suggested for charging stations(Azarova et al.,2020)and explored for otherenergy projects(Li et al.,2013;Sperling,2017).Othersolutionsarealsobeingexploredin

153、pilotprogramstoprovidehomeownersandcommunitymem-berswiththeopportunitytoearnrevenuestiedtocharging.Forexample,ChargeEnterprisesInc.isworkingwith churches in the Baltimore,MD area to install charging stations in church parking lots.The companythen enters into a revenue-sharing agreement with the chur

154、ch,flowing money back into the community,14and is developing no-cost arrangements related to purchasing and installing the station.15The nonrevenuebenefi tsofchargingstationsincommunity hubs,suchastheparkinglotofachurch,other faith-basedorga-nizations,or even community centers,such as YMCAs or libra

155、ries,include the opportunity to demonstratethese new technologies to the broader community without removing a public parking spot.This can alsobe particularly benefi cial in helping communities become more familiar with EV technology,particularly inunderserved areas with low EV adoption.Ecology Acti

156、on,an organization in California,has a project focused on increasing EV adoption in un-derserved locations in the state,particularly for households in multiunit dwellings.The organization workswith the buildings property owner to install a Level 2 charging station in their garage;the purchase andins

157、tallation is fully subsidized by the electric utility and state,but the building owner covers the cost of oper-ations.The organization seeks out apartment buildings that have excess electric grid capacity,allowing forthe installation without grid upgrade expenses.This solution then provides revenues

158、 to the building owner,who sets the price of charging services.16Similarly,itselectric is an NYC-based start-up that provides a curbside charging station connected to abuildings meter,thus circumventing the need to integrate with the utility.The company pays for the stationand installation and has a

159、 revenue-sharing agreement with the building owner.Because these stations areseparately submetered,itselectric pays the energy cost consumed by the charger directly to the utility(thebuilding owners electricity costs never increase).This differs from Ecology Action,as itselectric determinesthe publi

160、c-facing price dependent on the underlying kWh cost from the local utility company,meaning therevenues and profi ts to the building owner can vary signifi cantly.Achieving restorative justice through alternative publicprivate partnerships and ownership models willnotbepossiblewithoutleveragingproced

161、uraljustice.Giventhehyperlocalaspectofchargingstationinvest-ments,communities surrounding these stations may have a different perspective than stakeholders at thestateorcitylevelregardinghowtheinvestmentscanbenefi tthemthemostand,critically,howsupportivelo-cal residents are of charging station insta

162、llations.Thus,even as funds flow to the city or state,engaging localcommunities will be key for these installations to improve local economic outcomes.Community membersmay have valid reasons to oppose charging stations,such as increased traffi c,reduced parking availability,and direct benefi ts goin

163、g toward non community members.Bringing communities into the decisionmakingprocess around where and how to invest in these stations and who owns and profi ts from these investmentsis a key step in achieving restorative justice as part of the transition to vehicle electrifi cation.15Seehttps:/www.res

164、ourceumc.org/en/content/churches-to-provide-ev-charging-stationsfor more information.16However,building owners may not profi t from the operations after the cost of energy and operations and maintenance are ac-counted for,although Ecology Action intends for them to at least maintain revenue neutrali

165、ty.The program is primarily marketed as away to retain and attract tenants.154Exploring Equity in Charging and Fueling Infrastructure GrantsThe federal government has dedicated$2.5 billion in investments in charging stations through the CFI pro-gram.The fi rstsetofgrantrecipients wasreleased in Marc

166、h 2024,representing diverse projects.Many oftheawarded grants include descriptions claiming that the investments will improve equity,although the largemajority do not provide public access to the proposals.Two proposals that are publicly available and standout as including multiple pathways to impro

167、ve equity outcomes are the proposals from Mesa,AZ and Boise,ID.Mesa was awarded almost$12 million to“increase access to electric vehicle charging and support mul-timodal electrifi cation.The project will install 48 electric vehicle charging ports,charging docks for e-bikesand e-scooters,and solar ca

168、nopies to support electricity generation at the stations.The project empha-sizes equity by increasing the number of stations in disadvantaged communities by 167 percent”(FederalHighway Administration,2023).17This program highlights increasing the number of charging stations indisadvantaged communiti

169、es and ensures that ports will be accessible for individuals who do not own EVsbut rely on e-bikes and e-scooters.Furthermore,the solar canopies will provide clean,renewable energy tothe ports,reducing their potential strain on the electric grid and central grid emissions.Thus,this proposalspeaks to

170、 recognition justice and distribution justice,given the focus on leveraging the funds to improvemobility while reducing cost shifts within the electric sector.Boise received$3.2 million to“implement public electric vehicle charging sites,install an estimated 100Level-2 charging ports across 20-25 si

171、tes and 4-8 DCFC ports across 2-4 sites.The project focuses on siteselection in underserved communities,increases community outreach,and creates an EV workforce devel-opment program”(Federal Highway Administration,2023).This proposal addresses improved accessibilityby focusing on expanding different

172、 types of chargers into new locations.Including increased communityoutreach indicates a desire for procedural justice.Furthermore,the EV workforce development programcan contribute to restorative justice by focusing on local community economic development through pro-viding job training and employme

173、nt opportunities for individuals in the community.These proposals detail specifi c strategies aimed at reducing inequities by addressing one or more is-sues to improve recognition,distributional,procedural,or restorative justice.However,several more havesummaries in the CFI descriptions that include

174、 a reference to benefi ting underserved,overburdened,low-income,and/or disadvantaged communities but offer no information as to how the strategies will ensurethat these communities actually benefi t.This subcategory of proposals includes those from New York City,NY,Northwest Seaport Alliance,WA,Colu

175、mbia,MO,Santa Fe,NM,Boulder,CO,Atlanta,GA,Illinois,andMaine.For example,the proposal summary for Santa Fe is“The County of Santa Fe will receive$3.3 millionto build an EV charging network of 33 fast chargers and Level 2 charging stations at 13 sites that include17This is verbatim from the CFI Progra

176、m Grant Award description document,available here.16underserved communities,multifamily affordable housing and county transportation hubs”(Federal High-way Administration,2023).This is a clear example of a proposal dedicated to ensuring that a portion ofcharging stations are placed in underserved co

177、mmunities and for multifamily affordable housing units.TheNorthwest Seaport Alliance focuses on charging station investments for medium-and heavy-duty vehicles,with the goal of reducing“emissions from an estimated 300 diesel trucks,including greenhouse gas emis-sions that disproportionately impact d

178、isadvantaged,overburdened communities living near the seaportsand along major freight corridors between Seattle and Tacoma”(Federal Highway Administration,2023).However,as discussed,without a clear strategy as to how investments will be implemented to reduce in-equities and ensure active community i

179、nvolvement,simply placing chargers in underserved communitiesor along transportation corridors could exacerbate inequities(see Table 1).185Discussion and ConclusionThe equity framework for public EV charging stations described herein was developed through discussionswith community-based and other no

180、n-profi t organizations,station operators,utilities,and policymakersas well as a review of relevant literature.The framework provides principles of equity for charging stationinvestments and can be used by communities and policymakers to guide discussions around equitable in-vestments in public EV c

181、harging infrastructure.Illuminating the impact of charging stations on intersectinginjustices reveals pathways to improve social justice outcomes through investments in public charging sta-tions.Fundamentally,it is possible to make stations more widely available throughout the country in a waythat i

182、mproves mobility options and economic opportunities within underserved communities.However,without careful planning through community engagement and consideration of interconnect-ing injustices,charging station installations in underserved areas are primed to exacerbate inequities.Anequity framework

183、 reveals the importance of local,community-engaged,and informed decisionmaking forpublic EV charging station investment decisions.Engaging with community groups,pushing for more pub-licprivate partnerships,making pricing clear and easy to understand,and better education of the publicon the benefi ts

184、 of EV adoption and how to analyze charging options to achieve lowest price refueling aresteps that can smooth the transition to EVs and ensure that public investments in charging infrastructurecontribute to transportation justice.More work is required,particularly at the local level,to identify pat

185、hways to improve the affordability ofpublic EV charging compared to at-home charging.Economists,in particular,have a role to play in exam-ining the forces of competition and information transparency in pricing and customer choice for public EV18These projects might have a signifi cant level of commu

186、nity engagement.However,none of these proposals(other than the tworeviewed)are publicly available,which makes it diffi cult to assess a priori the intention to take this step.Assessing the extent to whichcommunities are engaged will need to occur throughout the project to ensure accountability,and a

187、n ex-post analysis after the buildinghas begun can help the federal government identify whether these crucial actions are taken when leveraging federal funds.17charging use.Additionally,new consideration may be warranted for publicprivate partnerships and utilityparticipation in public EV charging t

188、hat recognizes the social benefi ts and externalities of an affordable andrapid electric transportation transition.Finally,although widespread and equitable electric charging infrastructure is necessary for the transi-tion,the affordability of EVs themselves is a key issue and a barrier to adoption

189、for underserved communi-ties.Additional research is needed to uncover technology-enabled and policy-driven opportunities for elec-trifi cation to improve public transit convenience and services as part of the broader push for transportationdecarbonization and related air quality improvements,particu

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