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1、Power semiconductors for an energy-wise societyWhite PaperWe support the Sustainable Development Goals3Executive summaryA commitment to an energy-wise society must be synonymous with a commitment to power semiconductors and their applicationsThe purpose of this white paper is to facilitate greater a

2、wareness as well as practical insights concerning the market-oriented,market-driven and market-focused roles that power semiconductors perform over a very broad spectrum of industries and in society as a whole.Annual revenues from power semiconductor devices are expected to more than double through

3、2030.This comes as no surprise,as these high-tech electronic components constitute THE key enablers to tackling major challenges on the path to an energy-wise society,namely decarbonization and digitization.Similar to the role played by semiconductor integrated circuits(ICs)in computers,data storage

4、 and communication applications,an extensive use of power semiconductors lies at the heart of modern power electronics.This includes renewable power generation and transmission,electromobility,automated factories,energy-efficient data centres,smart cities and smart homes,to mention just a few applic

5、ations.Strategic opportunities for power semiconductors in an energy-wise societyAdvancing the utilization of power semiconductors constitutes the only means of successfully implementing national policies for achieving carbon neutrality by the middle of this century.Many required emerging applicatio

6、ns for carbon neutrality can only be enabled by power electronics and power semiconductors.Improved power semiconductor device technologies and products are being continuously developed with more suitable electrical and reliability properties.Today,such technologies are experiencing a significant le

7、ap in performance with the introduction of wide bandgap materials,which will play an important part in increasing the energy efficiency of many established and emerging power electronic applications.The challenges to be addressed for power semiconductors to meet the needs of an energy-wise societyFr

8、om chips to packages to power electronics,power semiconductor developments are becoming tightly interrelated across the value chain.A robust supply chain must be ensured,as power semiconductors require specific materials within a cost structure and the availability of materials required for large sc

9、ale manufacturing.Some of these materials could constitute a potential bottleneck in the future.For example,during the coronavirus pandemic,in many parts of the world supply-chain problems in the semiconductor industry had massive ripple effects throughout the economy.In the future,special attention

10、 will need to be paid to the entire power semiconductor industry value chain to avoid similar situations,so as not to jeopardize global decarbonization efforts.A more focused commitment on the part of governments concerning policies and targets for advancing power semiconductor devices and integrati

11、on technologies,as well as ensuring the availability of adequate funds and resources,is needed to achieve the shift to an energy-wise society.Some initial steps in the right direction include the various“chip acts”announced by a 4Executive summarynumber of countries,which,in the words of the Europea

12、n Commission,aim to“develop a thriving semiconductor ecosystem and resilient supply chain”.A stronger recognition of the critical role played by power semiconductors is still needed in such initiatives.Furthermore,the increasing shortage of human resources required for the multi-disciplinary enginee

13、ring skills necessary to reach the critical milestones for decarbonization also represents an acute concern.To successfully mitigate this problem,strategic actions will be required at policy-making levels.Standards for power semiconductorsThis white paper focuses on the strategic role of power semic

14、onductors for an energy-wise society in order to aid in establishing guidelines within standardization bodies and to bring power semiconductors to the forefront of impending standardization proposals.Standards play a key role in the growth of any industry,including that of power semiconductors,by en

15、abling accelerated market acceptance and faster worldwide deployment of applications,thus removing significant technical risks,increasing product quality,and ensuring fair competition practices.This white paper also delivers implementable recommendations to IEC stakeholders aimed at enhancing the co

16、llaborative structures among such parties and accelerating the development and the adoption of needed standards.To address the complex topics described above,the white paper is structured as follows:Section 1 introduces the concept of an energy-wise society,the role and operating principles of power

17、 semiconductors,and the impact of such devices on the UN Sustainable Development Goals and on the IEC Strategic Plan.Section 2 presents the most important power electronic applications relevant to an energy-wise society and considers the forces that are driving the current and future development of

18、power semiconductors.Section 3 reviews major developments affecting power semiconductor devices as key components in power electronic applications,from different perspectives.These developments are discussed in relation to the industry value chain(chip and module).Sustainability and life cycle asses

19、sment topics leading to a circular economy are also included for the first time in such a white paper.Section 4 considers state-of-the-art standards as well as new standards requirements that are arising in response to new challenges introduced by the development and emerging applications of power s

20、emiconductors.Section 5 provides conclusions and some key recommendations.It considers what the changes discussed in the previous sections mean for the IEC,its stakeholders and future standards work.Call to actionPower semiconductors no longer constitute an inaccessible technology.However,increased

21、efforts are needed to ensure that the unique role to be played by power semiconductors in the transition to an energy-wise society is well understood and appreciated by all participants.The required acceleration in deploying power electronics with included power semiconductors is presenting novel ch

22、allenges which could have major implications for all IEC stakeholders from power electronics end-users to power electronics equipment manufacturers and power semiconductor manufacturers.For example,transitioning the power semiconductor devices and power electronics industries from“linear economies”t

23、o“circular economies”characterized 5Executive summaryby a constant flow of resources that are returned to the product cycle at the end of use will require formidable changes,especially given the range of different situations among industry actors and their differing capacities to make the necessary

24、changes.Understanding the changes detailed in this white paper,including the new technologies and standards requirements involved,will guarantee that the IEC remains at the forefront of power semiconductors and power electronics developments.The IEC can continue to take a leading role in ensuring th

25、at international and national standardization bodies work more closely with one another,and with industry,aligning their methodologies and processes for standards introduced concerning power semiconductors and power electronics.An important part of the IEC community includes the Young Professionals(

26、YP)Programme,and the authors of this white paper aim to inspire the YPs by presenting them with a dedicated message urging them to take up the challenge of power semiconductors and power electronics to change the world for the better.Message to young professionalsIn a first for the IEC Market Strate

27、gy Boards White Paper series,a special,brief section is included in this white paper dedicated to the audience of the IEC Young Professionals(YP)Programme,as well as to young professionals in other standardization organizations and industry in general.The authors and contributors to the present whit

28、e paper strongly believe in an electrified future for our energy-wise society.Power semiconductors are the critical technology,the cornerstone of an all-electric and connected society that will feature ever lighter,tougher,more reliable and more energy-efficient power electronics applications.Power

29、semiconductor devices and power electronics thus represent a unique opportunity for YPs who are motivated to make a meaningful and quantifiable impact towards the electrification/decarbonization of our world.Furthermore,this thriving industry fuels a vibrant ecosystem of innovation,and YPs will find

30、 themselves working with leading edge technologies,whether in chip/module/power converter design or manufacturing.This white paper aims to inspire innovation that never stops and calls on YPs to rise to the challenge,because an energy-wise society will need improved and even ground-breaking power se

31、miconductors.The YPs of today the leaders of tomorrow can drive the development and commercialization of many new generations of power semiconductors and power electronics.6Executive summaryAcknowledgmentsThis white paper has been prepared by a project team of 61 members representing a variety of or

32、ganizations,working under the IEC Market Strategy Board.The project team included representatives from semiconductor network businesses,academia,equipment vendors from around the world,and IEC Young Professionals.The project sponsor was Dr Kazuhiko Tsutsumi,from the Mitsubishi Electric Corporation a

33、nd Chair of the IEC Market Strategy Board.Project coordination was by Peter Lanctot,Secretary of the IEC Market Strategy Board.Coordinating authors and project partner were Dr Munaf Rahimo and Dr Iulian Nistor of MTAL GmbH.The management team members were (in alphabetical order):Dr Shiori Idaka,Mits

34、ubishi Electric Europe B.V.Dr Harufusa Kondo,Mitsubishi Electric CorporationDr Gourab Majumdar,Mitsubishi Electric CorporationDr Atsushi(Jack)Miyoshi,Mitsubishi Electric CorporationMr Dragi Trifunovich,Daihyo LLCThe project team members were (in alphabetical order):Prof Hirofumi Akagi,Tokyo Institut

35、e of Technology,MemberMr Solomon Alemu,Goldwin Science and Technology Company,Ltd,YP MemberMr Antonello Antoniazzi,ABB,MemberProf Amjad Anvari-Moghaddam,Aalborg University,MemberProf Mark-Matthias Bakran,Bayreuth University,MemberDr Markus Behet,SICC,MemberProf Frede Blaabjerg,Aalborg University,Mem

36、berDr Roland Brniger,R.Brniger AG,MemberDr Stephanie Watts Butler,WattsButler LLC,MemberProf Cyril Buttay,INSA Lyon,MemberMr Eric Carroll,EIC Consultancy,MemberProf Paul Chow,Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,MemberMr Peter Dietrich,Richardson RFPD,MemberProf Drazen Dujic,EPFL,MemberDr Ismail Drhorhi

37、,ONEE-BE,YP MemberProf Hans-Gnter Eckel,Rostock University,MemberDr Said El-Barbari,BMW Group,MemberDr Peter Friedrichs,Infineon,MemberProf Ulrike Grossner,ETH Zurich,MemberProf Wendi Guo,Aalborg University,MemberProf Marc Hiller,Karlsruhe Institute of Technology,MemberDr Oliver Hilt,Infineon,Member

38、Mr Yun Chao Hu,Huawei,MemberProf Jonas Huber,ETH Zurich,MemberProf Junichi Itoh,Nagaoka University of Technology,MemberMr Uwe Jansen,Infineon,MemberProf Nando Kaminski,University of Bremen,MemberProf Tsunenobu Kimoto,Kyoto University,MemberProf Johann Kolar,ETH Zurich,MemberDr Bernd Laska,Siemens,Me

39、mberDr Heinz Lendenmann,ABB,MemberMs Sandrine Leroy,Yole Group,Member7Executive summaryMr Xinqiang Li,Shanghai Electrical Apparatus Research Institute,MemberProf Andreas Lindemann,Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg,MemberDr Leo Lorenz,ECPE,MemberDr Markus Makoschitz,Austrian Institute of Technol

40、ogy,MemberProf Renato Minamisawa,Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz MemberMs Ashitha Narendran,Central Power Research Institute,YP MemberProf Shin-ichi Nishizawa,Kyushu University,MemberDr Fumihiko Ohta,Tokyo Electric Power Company,MemberProf Ichiro Omura,Kyushu Institute of Technology,MemberDr Kaushik

41、Rajashekara,University of Houston,MemberDr Klaus Rigbers,SMA,MemberProf Wataru Saito,Kyushu University,MemberDr Oliver Senftleben,BMW Group,MemberDr Akio Shima,Hitachi,MemberProf Daniel-Ioan Stroe,Aalborg University,MemberDr Kenichi Suga,Mitsubishi Electric CorporationMr Hiroshi Takahashi,Fuji Elect

42、ric,MemberProf Markus Thoben,Fachhochschule Dortmund,MemberProf Victor Veliadis,North Carolina State University,MemberDr Jan Vobecky,Hitachi Energy,MemberDr Andreas Volke,Power Integrations,MemberMr Ming Xue,Infineon,Member8Table of contentsExecutive summary 3List of abbreviations 11Glossary 17Secti

43、on 1 Towards an energy-wise society 191.1 Introduction and background 191.1.1 Power semiconductors as a key towards an energy-wise society 211.1.2 Objectives of the white paper 231.2 Scope and structure of the white paper 241.2.1 Market considerations for power semiconductor devices,modules,and appl

44、ications 241.2.2 Power semiconductor devices,modules,and applications 251.2.3 Challenges for the transition to an energy-wise society 26Section 2 Power electronics trends and future perspectives 282.1 Electricity generation and distribution application Energy sector introduction 282.1.1 Conventional

45、 electricity systems 282.1.2 Power distribution and grid(AC,DC)292.1.3 Photovoltaic generation 312.1.4 Wind generation 322.1.5 Green hydrogen generation 332.1.6 Solid state transformers and solid-state circuit breakers 342.1.7 Mobility infrastructures 362.1.8 Energy storage for grid stabilization 37

46、2.2 Electrification application User sector introduction 392.2.1 Electrified mobility 402.2.2 Automotive 402.2.3 Railway 422.2.4 Electrified aircraft 442.2.5 Electrified ships 452.2.6 Factory automation,industrial motors,and inverters 469Table of contents2.2.7 Heavy industries and highpower converte

47、rs 472.2.8 Other industry applications 482.2.9 Heating and cooling,home appliances 492.3 Data centres and telecom information technologies IT sector 51Section 3 Power semiconductor devices trends and future perspectives 533.1 Introduction and background 533.2 Power semiconductor chip technologies 53

48、3.3 Silicon chip technologies,history,and future trends 543.3.1 Thyristor 563.3.2 GTO and GCT 563.3.3 IGBT and freewheeling diode 593.4 WBG chip technologies,history,and future trends 593.4.1 SiC semiconductor chip technologies 603.4.2 GaN semiconductor chip technologies 623.4.3 Future wide band gap

49、 materials 633.5 Power module technologies 643.5.1 Typical outline of generalpurpose industrial power modules 653.5.2 IPM and application-specific power modules 663.5.3 WBG power modules 683.6 Supply chains that support power semiconductors 693.6.1 Silicon power wafers supply 693.6.2 SiC power wafer

50、s supply 713.6.3 GaN power wafers supply 723.6.4 Power module materials and parts supply 723.7 Gate drivers 743.8 Life cycle assessment of power semiconductors and power electronics 75Section 4 Standards needs for power semiconductors for an energy-wise society 774.1 The present state of affairs 784

51、.2 Future standards needs 794.3 Filling the void of power module standards 794.4 Standards required for WBG materials 814.5 Standards for meeting future,user-driven changes 8110Table of contentsSection 5 Conclusions and recommendations 845.1 Recommendations addressed to policy makers and regulators

52、845.2 Recommendations addressed to the industry 855.3 Recommendations addressed to the IEC and other standards developing organizations(SDOs)86Annex A 88Annex B 89Bibliography 9111List of abbreviations 2DEG two-dimensional electron gas 2L-PWM-VCS two-level pulse width modulated voltage source conver

53、tor AC alternating current AEA all-electric aircraft AECS all-electric and connected society AFE active front end AI artificial intelligence AlGaN aluminium gallium nitride AlN aluminium nitride Al2O3 aluminium oxide AlSiC aluminium-SiC composite APF annual performance factor AQG Automotive Qualific

54、ation Guideline(ECPE)BEV battery electric vehicle BJT bipolar junction transistor BCT bi-directional control thyristor BMS battery management system BPD basal plane dislocation CA conformity assessment CAGR compound annual growth rate CapEx capital expenditure CMC cascaded multicell COP coefficient

55、of performance CRM Critical Raw Material(EU regulatory list)c-Si crystalline silicon CSTBT carrier stored trench bipolar transistor CT computer tomography CTE coefficient of thermal expansionTechnical andscientific terms12List of abbreviations CVD chemical vapor deposition DC direct current DCB dire

56、ct copper bonding DCFC direct current fast charger DFIG doubly fed induction generator EMC electromagnetic compatibility EMI electromagnetic interference epi epitaxial ESS energy storage system ETT electrically triggered thyristors EV electric vehicle FACTS flexible AC transmission system FCEV fuel

57、cell electric vehicle FCV fuel cell vehicle FP fine pattern FS field stop FZ floating zone FWD free-wheeling diode Ga2O3 gallium oxide GaN gallium nitride GCT gate commutated thyristor GHG greenhouse gas1 Gt gigaton GTO gate turn-off thyristor H2 hydrogen H3TRB high humidity,high temperature and rev

58、erse bias HV-HTRB high humidity,high temperature and reverse bias with high voltage applied HEA hybrid electric aircraft1 Such as carbon dioxide CO2,methane CH4,or sulfur hexafluoride SF6.13List of abbreviations HEV hybrid electric vehicle HEMT high electron mobility transistor HF high frequency HiG

59、T high conductivity insulated gate bipolar transistor HVDC high voltage direct current HSI hardware/software interface IBR inverter-based resource IC integrated circuit ICT information and communications technology IDM integrated device manufacturer IeGT injection enhanced gate transistor IGBT insul

60、ated gate bipolar transistor IGCT integrated gate commutated thyristor INV inverter IoT Internet of Things IPM intelligent power module IT information technology JFET junction field-effect transistor kW kilowatt LCA life cycle assessment,also known as life cycle analysis LCC load commutated converte

61、r LIDAR light detection and ranging LTT light-triggered thyristors LV low voltage LVDC low voltage direct current MCU microcontroller unit MCZ magnetic-field applied Czochralski MEA more-electric aircraft MEF market evaluation form(IEC)MMC modular multilevel converter MOS metal oxide semiconductor M

62、OSFET metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor14List of abbreviations MP micropipe MRI magnetic resonance image MV medium voltage MVAC medium voltage alternating current MVD medium voltage drive MW megawatt NPC neutral-point-clamped NTD neutron transmutation doping NZE Net Zero Emissions by

63、 2050 Scenario(IEA)OBC on-board charger OpEx operational expenditure PAM pulse amplitude modulation PCB printed circuit board PCT phase control thyristor PE power electronics PET positron emission tomography PFC power factor correction PHS pumped hydro storage PtX power-to-X PUE power usage effectiv

64、eness PV photovoltaic PVT physical vapor transport PWM pulse width modulation RAC residential inverter air conditioner R&D research and development RB reverse-blocking RC reverse-conducting RC-IGBT reverse-conducting insulated gate bipolar transistor REACH Registration,Evaluation,Authorisation and R

65、estriction of Chemicals(EU Regulation)RF radio frequency15List of abbreviations RoHS Restriction of Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment(EU Directive)SBD Schottky barrier diode SC subcommittee(IEC)SCR silicon-controlled rectifier SDG Sustainable Development Goal(UN)SDO standar

66、ds developing organization SEER seasonal energy efficiency ratio SG strategic group(IEC)SiC silicon carbide SiC MOFSET silicon carbide metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor Si3N4 silicon nitride SJ super junction SOA safe operating area SOC state of charge SPT soft punch through SSCB sol

67、id-state circuit breaker SST solid-state transformer STATCOM static synchronous compensator T&D transmission and distribution TC technical committee(IEC)TED threading edge dislocation TFS trench field stop TO transistor outline TSD threading screw dislocation TSEP temperature sensitive electrical pa

68、rameter UHV ultra high voltage UPS uninterruptible power supply UV ultraviolet UWBG ultrawide bandgap16List of abbreviations VRE variable renewable energy(e.g.solar,wind)VSC voltage source converter VSD variable speed drive WBG wide bandgap WG working group(IEC)YP young professional AEC Automotive E

69、lectronics Council ANSI American National Standards Institute CAB IEC Conformity Assessment Board CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization ECPE European Center for Power Electronics EU European Union IEA International Energy Agency IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

70、 IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ISO International Organization for Standardization JEDEC JEDEC Solid State Technology Association,located in the US with worldwide membership and accredited by ANSI JEITA Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association MSB I

71、EC Market Strategy Board PECTA Power Conversion Technology Annex Platform(of the IEA)SEMI Semiconductor Equipment and Materials Institute SMB IEC Standardization Management Board UL Underwriters LaboratoriesOrganizations,institutions and companies17intelligent power modulepower module that additiona

72、lly includes integrated circuitry dedicated to controlling,protecting,and gate-driving the internal power devices to enhance performance,reliability and easy-to-use features in its applications inverterizationuse of a power inverter between an energy source and user equipment(for example between the

73、 power grid and a motor in an electrical fan or HVAC unit),rather than connecting the user equipment directly to the grid power converter/inverterelectrical device that processes and controls the flow of electrical energy by supplying voltages and currents in a form that is optimally suited for user

74、 loads NOTE 1 Converters convert the voltage from alternating current(AC)to direct current(DC).Inverters convert the voltage from DC to AC.NOTE 2 Modern power converters and inverters rely on power semiconductors as active switches and on capacitors,inductances(and mutual inductances or transformers

75、)as passive(reactive)components used for intermediate energy storage and voltage/current filtering.A large part of power converter design is the optimization of its energy efficiency and its power density 12.power electronicselectronic circuits technology for the control of electric power in all its

76、 phases during generation,transmission,distribution and conversion,using power semiconductor devices NOTE Power electronics enable a wide range of uses of electricity in applications covering millivolts/milliwatts to hundreds of thousands of volts/gigawatts 2.power module isolated power semiconducto

77、r device consisting of an assembly of at least two power semiconductor chips(which can be of different types/materials)in a single package/housing,providing insulation of the internal semiconductors through an integral electrical insulator between the cooling surface or base plate and any isolated c

78、ircuit elements NOTE Power modules may contain sensing circuits such as thermistors(in line with IEC 60747-15 and UL1557).power semiconductor(chip/bare die)gate-or base-controlled electronic device or diode whose current ratings are generally above 1 A NOTE Excluded from the devices described by thi

79、s term are photodiodes,microwave devices and semiconductor sensors.reliabilityfundamental attribute for the safe operation of any modern technological system including power semiconductors and power electronics 3 NOTE A fundamental aspect of the reliability theory is that the probability of failure

80、function displays a“bathtub shape”4.The curve represents the idea that the operation of a population of power semiconductor devices for example can be viewed as comprised of three distinct periods:an“early failure”(burn-in)period,where the probability of failure decreases over time;a“random failure”

81、(useful life)period,where the probability of failure is constant over time;a“wear-out”period,where the probability of failure increases over time.2 Numbers in square backets refer to the Bibliography.Glossary18Glossarysemiconductor materialmaterial defined by its ability to conduct electricity and w

82、hose conductivity can be adjusted under specific conditions to act either as a pure conductor or a pure insulator NOTE After specific processing is performed on them,semiconductor materials can control the direction of the flow of electrical charges(i.e.current),which is a unique property,because pu

83、re conductors allow electrical current to flow in both directions.semiconductor waferthin slice of semiconductor material,such as a crystalline silicon(c-Si)or silicon carbide(SiC),used for the fabrication of integrated circuits,power semiconductor chips,etc.191.1 Introduction and backgroundThe role

84、 of power semiconductors in advancing the electrical and electronic foundations of industries and society in general has long been a comparatively quiet and unheralded one even though power semiconductors(including power management integrated circuits(IC)which are shipped more than any other type of

85、 IC device according to IC Insights 5)and power semiconductors occupy a respectable but not massive economic market share amounting to approximately 10%of the entire ecosystem of semiconductors 6 7 8.Yet,the critical role power semiconductors play is not readily recognized by,or visible to,those not

86、 immediately involved in the industry.Furthermore,only a limited number of experts could identify the purpose and role of power semiconductors in each application.Power semiconductors are also not easily visible from the perspective of consumers and other end-users,who need not,or dare not,“look und

87、er the hood”.Yet,power semiconductors hold the key to improved energy efficiency,along with the development of power supply systems based on renewable energies that must operate under increasingly demanding conditions.The accelerating shift towards a green and decarbonized society has made the uniqu

88、e role of power semiconductors,especially high power semiconductors,particularly worthy of prompt attention by industry and standards developing organizations(SDOs).The large-scale deployment of clean energy sources,particularly renewables,coupled with high levels of electrification will be the key

89、to reducing emissions of greenhouse gases(GHG).The energy shift from fossil fuel to electricity together with economic growth will bring an enormous increase of electricity usage.Taking“source-to-end-user”energy losses into consideration,efficiency in transferring and utilizing electricity is extrem

90、ely important.There exist myriad types of power electronics(PE)applications used in this context,and power semiconductors are the key electronic devices that enable these PE applications.Recently,there has been a stir concerning the shortage of semiconductors,and in this respect power semiconductors

91、 are no exception.It is strongly evident that forward-looking developments need to take market growth into account.From the standpoint of standards,the need for power semiconductor device and in particular wide bandgap(WBG)device standards has been recently recognized.Since power modules are used in

92、 a myriad of applications,power semiconductors must comply not only with semiconductor standards but also with application-specific standards that change and evolve daily.An example of current efforts is the noteworthy work being performed by IEC Technical Committee 47:Semiconductor devices/Working

93、Group 8:Wide bandgap technologies Power electronic conversion.However,the continuing conundrum that standardization organizations face is that industrial and global needs for power semiconductors are outpacing the development of adequate international standards and conformity assessment(CA)systems.A

94、s envisioned for standardization communities,the ultimate goal of the white paper is to foster greater awareness beyond the present level of technical Section 1 Towards an energy-wise society20Towards an energy-wise societycommittees and to bring power semiconductors to the forefront of standardizat

95、ion initiatives.A much-needed alignment of industry growth with standards development would play a significant part in creating awareness of the key role and importance of power semiconductors.A concurrent aim of the white paper,reflecting the role of the IEC Market Strategy Board(MSB),is to fulfil

96、the IEC Strategic Plan(see Figure 1-1),which encompasses nine goals that the IEC aims to realize through its work 9.The white paper focuses on six of those nine goals centered on helping create all-electric,clean and innovative societies.Power semiconductors deliver economic,environmental and social

97、 value as key electronic components exercising a direct impact on achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals(SDG).They contribute to creating the foundation for shaping worldwide economic progress in harmony with society and the environment.Thus,power semiconductors need to be more w

98、idely recognized for their contributions towards multiple UN SDGs as outlined in Table 1-1.Figure 1-1|IEC Strategic Plan goals aligned with the white paper 9Producing standards andconformity assessmentsolutions for a safe andsecure digital societyDevelopingand deployingSMART Standards andConformity

99、Assessment Strengthening therole of IEC and CAto deliver an all-electricand connected societyEnabling a digitaland all-electric societyProviding solutionsand servicesfor net zero,circular economyand sustainable developmentChampioning therenewable energy transitionand next generation power systemsBui

100、lding an efficient,safe and sustainable world through IEC Standardsand Conformity AssessmentFostering asustainable world21Towards an energy-wise society1.1.1 Power semiconductors as a key towards an energy-wise societyThe expression“energy-wise society”may appear synonymous with the terms“carbon neu

101、trality”and“sustainability”.However,with power semiconductor devices representing the key enablers of this powerful option,the vision for an energy-wise society is that industry and consumers will achieve“a society that uses energy wisely”in which electricity is available and affordable to them and

102、can be used at their own discretion.Topics such as new circuit topology,new power semiconductor device technology,and other new findings that enable greater system-level energy efficiencies represent key elements in developments towards an energy-wise society,as presented in the white paper.Figure 1

103、-2 illustrates some of the major market segments in which power semiconductor applications fit into the concept of an energy-wise society.An energy-wise society will be shaped by major driving forces,megatrends and market and societal needs that will significantly impact the development and use of p

104、ower semiconductors,which in turn shall address a variety of challenges:Climate change requires significant reductions of CO2 emissions as well as other problematic chemicals with high impact on the environment(GHG).Replacing natural gas with green hydrogen(H2)in many industrial and transportation a

105、pplications requires large-scale deployment of electrolysers with lower electrical losses and advanced grid integration Table 1-1|Impact of power semiconductors on the UN SDGsUN SDGImpact of power semiconductor Convert renewable energy sources(solar,wind,hydro)to electrical energy Transport and dist

106、ribution of renewable energy to consumers,sometimes over large distances Ensure high energy efficiency Renewable energy installations represent a growing market for companies directly involved in the supply chain,but also for adjacent businesses(service/maintenance,etc.)New industries and business m

107、odels enabled by emerging power electronics with power semiconductors(green hydrogen,electric vehicle(EV)fast charging networks,etc.)Clean and environmentally friendly technologies that address societal demands,foster innovation and build sustainable industry and infrastructure(e.g.motor drives and

108、robotics to increase efficiency in industrial factories)Renewables,electrical vehicles and green hydrogen reduce dependence on fossil fuels in transportation and various industrial processes Increased energy efficiency means fewer resources are needed22Towards an energy-wise societyFigure 1-2|Power

109、semiconductors and their applications for an energy-wise society3 3 Source:Mitsubishi Electriccapabilities.According to a recent International Energy Agency(IEA)report 10 and as depicted in Figure 1-3,more than 36,3 Gt of equivalent CO2 emissions were generated in conjunction with energy-related sec

110、tors in 2021.Achieving net zero or even zero carbon requires significant capacity increases for renewable energy installations(photovoltaic(PV),wind),sometimes in regions far removed from the major energy usage areas.New loads will also appear in the power system to dramatically increase demand 11.A

111、chieving net zero means also a decarbonized transportation system based on emissions-free vehicles(e.g.EVs).Information and communications technologies(ICT)leads to increased data processing and transmission capabilities(data centres,5G communications,etc.)requiring additional energy use and large-s

112、cale backup facilities for stable power supply.Total cost of ownership leads to considering system cost reductions across the lifetime of a power electronic system via energy efficiency,smaller system size and reliability.A better understanding of the relationships between power efficiency reliabili

113、ty capital costs life cycle costs is also required for achieving a more energy-wise society.23Towards an energy-wise societyThe authors and contributors to the white paper share the vision of an energy-wise society that can only be achieved by the large-scale deployment of power semiconductors in po

114、wer electronic systems that control the electrical energy generation/conversion/storage/distribution from renewable energy sources and through the power grid.In turn this will drive the electrification of transportation and industry sectors,and digitalization of the society in general.1.1.2 Objectiv

115、es of the white paperThe white paper naturally touches on a wide variety of power semiconductor technologies from the past,present and not-so-distant future(until 2030),ranging from the well-known to the cutting-edge and also the contentious.Sponsored by the IEC MSB,the white papers purpose is also

116、an effort to bring a better,more comprehensive“market needs”approach to the wide scope of power semiconductor technologies that are currently available,as well as those technologies in the development pipeline.The white paper is therefore meant to bring greater awareness to the IEC community concern

117、ing market-oriented,market-driven,and market-focused roles that power semiconductors perform over a very broad spectrum of industries and in the wider society as a whole.The white paper also illustrates the need and opportunity for the IEC to place itself in the position of driving the change to bet

118、ter,more efficient,smaller,lighter,more robust and cost-effective power semiconductors.In other words,the IEC is primed to position itself at the forefront of enabling technology solutions for our energy-wise society.To summarize,the main objectives of the white paper include:to identify the picture

119、 and trends of how power semiconductors contribute,or are expected to contribute,to demanding applications for an energy-wise society;to examine the readiness of as well as potential markets for WBG devices based on application-specific developments;to evaluate at a high level the impact on energy,t

120、echnologies,supply chains,policies and relevant standards;to provide an outline of how future standardization could be conducted,for example,in collaboration between power semiconductor device manufacturers and power electronics industry members.The project team included more than 60 experts from ac

121、ademia and industry,whose know-how and expertise were focused to ensure that the white paper meets and exceeds the above-mentioned goals.But even more importantly,that the white paper will help bring power semiconductors to the forefront of the IEC communitys attention.Figure 1-3|Distribution of 36,

122、3 gigatons(Gt)of equivalent CO2 emissions generated in conjunction with energy-related sectors in 2021Electricity&heat40%Transportation21%Buildings8%Other7%Industry24%24Towards an energy-wise society1.2 Scope and structure of the white paperThe white paper discusses power semiconductor devices mainl

123、y used in power electronics for the energy sector and for the user-side sector that are relevant to an energy-wise society.Figure 1-4 summarizes the major applications involved and the typical nominal voltage of power semiconductor devices used in these applications.For clarity,the following voltage

124、 categories are defined and used throughout the white paper:Low voltage includes power semiconductor devices with a blocking voltage capability of up to 600 V per device.Medium voltage includes power semiconductor devices with a blocking voltage capability between 600 V and 1 700 V per device.High v

125、oltage includes power semiconductor devices with a blocking capability between 1 700 V and above 10 kV per device.In addition,the authors offer insights on various power semiconductors,power modules and key applications for an energy-wise society.Examples of these include:high voltage direct current

126、(HVDC)for transmission grids,direct current fast chargers(DCFC),uninterruptible power supplies(UPS)for data centres,medium voltage drives(MVD)for motors,rail transport,electrical vehicle(EV)drives,renewable energies,home appliances,and heating and cooling systems.As shown in Figure 1-2,many of the e

127、nergy-wise society applications being discussed in the white paper are focused at higher power levels.While the emphasis of the white paper is on higher power level applications,the role of power semiconductors for energy efficiency and smart energy usage is much broader.Many of the conclusions and

128、recommendations of the white paper are valid across the broader power semiconductor space,including the range of low-medium voltage power semiconductors.1.2.1 Market considerations for power semiconductor devices,modules,and applicationsPower semiconductors have been dominant for decades in the form

129、 of silicon-based power devices.In recent years,alternative materials to silicon have become commercially available in the form of silicon carbide(SiC)and gallium nitride(GaN),enabling additional improvements in electrical energy conversion efficiency,reduced heat losses and reduced operating costs

130、for power electronic systems.Figure 1-4|Voltage classes of power semiconductor devices for an energy-wise society(for the purposes of this white paper)25Towards an energy-wise societyThe market for power semiconductors is expected to grow at a sustained pace over the next decade,with the compound an

131、nual growth rate(CAGR)varying between a few percentages and up to 10%between 2022 and 2030,reaching a total market value of more than USD 45 billion by 2030(comprising all types of power semiconductor devices but excluding power management ICs)6.The market for WBG power semiconductor devices is expe

132、cted to grow at an accelerated pace over the next few years with a CAGR of more than 30%between 2022 and 2027,reaching a market value of more than USD 6 billion by 2027 12.It is expected that the power semiconductor market will continue to grow due to increasing shares of renewable energy which will

133、 need to be converted and connected to the existing and future power grids.It is also expected that the market will grow due to existing applications such as home appliances,and due also to new applications that are just beginning to gain commercial significance,for example,fast chargers for electri

134、cal vehicles,electrolysers for green H2 generation,and battery-based energy storage systems(ESS).An energy grid powered by converters with power semiconductors would be able to transmit large amounts of energy across large distances with minimal losses.Building an independent and stable power grid w

135、ith secure access to low-cost,sustainable and green energy is a key strategic focus for many economies around the world.But numerous power semiconductor devices are also sold in industrial markets,so any slowdown of the global economy will partially be reflected in the lower growth rates of the over

136、all market.However,the high economic impact of the power semiconductor devices is further compounded when considering the market of power electronic systems in which they are applied.For example,it is estimated that by 2031,the market for automotive inverters alone will surpass USD 59 billion at a C

137、AGR of 17%13,for HVDC converters USD 17 billion at a CAGR of 15,5%14,and for PV inverters USD 52 billion at a CAGR of 15,7%15.When considering the general dynamic of the market and of the industry,it must be mentioned that silicon-based power semiconductor devices are mature technologies with decade

138、s-long experience in the field.Fewer start-up companies are focusing on silicon,and most of the established integrated device manufacturer(IDM)companies are investing to expand their production capacities and internal R&D evolutionary efforts.The field of WBG power semiconductor devices is currently

139、 a very dynamic area of development with many private-sector investments and numerous new enterprises being founded based on research,thus clearly recognizing the potential for market growth and large-scale deployment.Both established and new IDM companies are investing in the development and commer

140、cialization of WBG technology,sometimes through new business models that were not common in the silicon power semiconductor business(e.g.strategic long term partnerships along the entire supply chain).1.2.2 Power semiconductor devices,modules,and applicationsPower semiconductor devices are complex e

141、lectronic components used to switch on/off or to amplify electrical currents.The control of these devices is effected using low amplitude gate voltages or base currents,while the devices exhibit electrical current ratings above 1 A.The focus of the white paper is on power semiconductor devices appli

142、ed for current switching functionality.Simply described,in an electrical circuit these components act in a similar manner to mechanical switches by controlling the flow of an electrical current through the electrical circuit depending on the voltage levels and control signals,with the major differen

143、ce being that the switching operation of power semiconductors is done entirely electronically and without moving parts,at extremely high speeds and within extremely short timeframes,(as short as microseconds).Furthermore,if ICs are considered to be the key enablers for the flow of information and pr

144、ocessing 26Towards an energy-wise societyof digital data,then power semiconductor devices pave the way for the flow of electrical energy and processing of electrical power.Power semiconductor devices are constructed entirely from crystal-like material structures of very high quality in order to ensu

145、re high performance and to be capable of operating at high voltages of up to thousands of volts.Typical materials are silicon,silicon carbide,and gallium nitride.In order to protect power devices against various electrical and other external factors(such as environmental humidity,pollution,etc.),pow

146、er modules and discrete packages/housings have been developed that integrate two or more power devices in either a single component with larger electrical current rating,or in a specific subcircuit topology.The power modules together with many other auxiliary components required for their proper ope

147、ration are subsequently incorporated in larger electrical circuits enabling a wide range of power electronic applications,for example solar inverters,wind converters,and rail traction inverters.The performance of power devices in applications is normally assessed in terms of the system level energy

148、efficiency,cost,reliability and power density(or system size).A noted trend is for efficiency requirements to continue to increase,power density targets also to increase,and system costs expected to decrease.The white paper also reviews the state of the art and upcoming commercial developments of si

149、licon,as well as WBG power semiconductor devices.WBG power devices will be key for reaching higher electrical efficiencies beyond the limits offered by silicon technology.Thanks to their properties,WBG power devices can enable the creation of smaller power electronics systems,hence reducing the amou

150、nt of various required materials in such equipment.While silicon power semiconductors are ubiquitous in all modern power electronic applications,their WBG counterparts are gradually being introduced in select applications.This trend is explored in the white paper by considering the likelihood of com

151、mercial scale adoption of WBG power semiconductors versus the impact of their adoption over the next 5-10 years.The WBG technology is foreseen to enable simpler circuit topologies,smaller cooling systems and more cost-effective power electronic systems.More suitable power electronic solutions will b

152、ecome available to support electrification,which will become a key driving force of an energy-wise society.The WBG technologies will enable new applications and the solutions required by an energy-wise society for bi-directional and fast charging of EVs,energy storage and harvesting of renewable ene

153、rgies.1.2.3 Challenges for the transition to an energy-wise societyThe challenges associated with the transition to an energy-wise society are multiple and require cross-domain and international collaboration.Their impact spans from the supply chains of various industries to the electrical power gri

154、d.For example,expectations for installing renewable energy capacity in a net zero 2050 scenario require significant amounts of power semiconductors and power electronics which may be above the production capacities of various suppliers in the short to medium term.Ensuring a smooth transition from si

155、licon to WBG power semiconductors in select applications also constitutes a challenge,while the ecosystem of suppliers and manufacturers is still developing,and demand for power semiconductors and power converters surpasses the existing supply.Furthermore,a power system suitable for an energy-wise s

156、ociety will have more dynamic and distributed generation and load profiles,with significant swings from very low consumption to high consumption both during the course of a single day as well as seasonally 11.This would require rethinking the design of power systems,and introducing new technologies

157、uniquely enabled 27Towards an energy-wise societyby power semiconductors and power electronics for the purposes of energy storage,power flow control,and voltage stabilization in the grid.To support the accelerated rollout of power converters in an increasing number of applications,market-driven stan

158、dardization efforts are required in aligning the triad of power semiconductor chip development,module level packaging and power electronic applications,to prevent a development-level disconnect between these areas.In consideration of the rapidly increasing number of power converters across various a

159、pplications,sustainability aspects need to be more intensively considered from the very beginning in the development cycle of power semiconductors as well as power converters.Section 2 links some of these challenges at the system level to overall and individual trends and future perspectives of key

160、power electronic applications.The purpose of reviewing such applications is also to provide the background in which specific power semiconductor technologies discussed in Section 3,such as WBG,could assume their newfound or growing role,in an energy-wise society.282.1 Electricity generation and dist

161、ribution application Energy sector introductionThe global energy sector has begun its transition from fossil-based to zero-carbon sources with the aim of mitigating climate change and restricting global temperature to within 1,5 C of pre-industrial levels.To accelerate such a green transition,urgent

162、 actions are needed on both the national and international scales and within different industry sectors.However,there exists no one-size-fits-all solution for achieving a fully decarbonized energy sector.Smart electrification exploiting variable renewable energies(VRE),and improvement of energy effi

163、ciency and conservation through emerging technologies,are key drivers,while cross-sectoral integration backed with carbon removal measures for a cost-effective,efficient,and sustainable energy-wise society is a must.As the energy sector shifts towards a vision of(net)zero carbon,this will bring prof

164、ound implications for the electrical power system of any country/region 11.On one hand,there will be a large share of distributed energy sources,with much more dynamic generation profiles.On the other hand,in the presence of more informed and active prosumers,massive electrification of transport and

165、 heat,and cross-sectoral integration through power-to-X(PtX)technologies,the demand on the power system will dramatically increase.Power electronics and power semiconductor technologies provide solutions for issues in the energy sector,for example,for handling increased grid instability.For power el

166、ectronics used in these applications,the lifetime requirements,and often the reliability requirements,exceed the levels currently expected for consumer,automotive and most industrial applications.The use of highly efficient power semiconductor devices and interfaces for integrating renewable sources

167、 in power generation,transmission and distribution,together with advanced grid control solutions,can pave the way towards future power grids.Such power grids must remain reliable(typically defined as a power systems ability to avoid outages)and resilient(defined as a power systems ability to withsta

168、nd disruptive events and come back online after a major outage)and become more data driven.In addition,power system operators and power utilities must be ready to respond to uncertainties that exist at the supply and demand sides or risk facing unpredicted issues across the power grid.This will nece

169、ssitate delivering increased flexibility and grid storage capabilities,thus enabling higher degrees of observability for the grids operational parameters,including consumer demand and prosumer exports,and for grid-connected assets.Such additional functionalities can only be realized through the use

170、of power semiconductors and power electronics as described in more detail in the following subsections.2.1.1 Conventional electricity systemsElectricity generated using fossil fuels(coal,petroleum,natural gas)or other carbon-based fuels(biogas,wood)utilizes thermal generation processes that are inhe

171、rently and extremely inefficient,as the majority of the fuel energy is lost to the environment as waste heat.Additional losses Section 2 Power electronics trends and future perspectives29Power electronics trends and future perspectivescome from the energy used to operate the power plant itself as we

172、ll as from the power transmission and distribution grids.As a consequence,from the generation point to the consumer,almost two-thirds of the initial fuel energy will be lost.Various impacts due to mining and processing the fuels,GHG emissions,discharge of particulates from burning the fuels,and othe

173、r forms of pollution must also be accounted for in addition to the energy losses.Figure 2-1 illustrates the energy losses in a conventional electricity system.In a conventional electricity system,power semiconductors are encountered in relatively few but key applications.For example,thyristors are u

174、sed in large exciter systems that provide direct current(DC)to the rotors of synchronous generators.Thyristors and,more recently,insulated gate bipolar transistors(IGBT)also form the core of flexible alternating current(AC)transmission systems(FACTS),which are used to optimize the capacity of existi

175、ng power grids.However,this situation is about to change drastically in favour of power semiconductors.Driven by the societal trend of achieving carbon neutrality,power generation is shifting away from conventional methods such as fossil fuels.Renewable energy sources are regarded as the future of e

176、lectricity systems because they are considered to be carbon-free and generate much less waste heat than conventional methods,though smaller amounts of CO2 may be generated during the manufacturing and installation of renewable energy components such as solar panels,wind turbines and associated power

177、 electronics.Nevertheless,most of the losses encountered in the case of renewable energy sources are due to the power semiconductors in the power electronics controlling the flow of electricity from the energy sources to the power grid,as well as additional losses from the transformers and cables.Th

178、ese losses currently amount to below 5-10%of the input energy.It is thus essential,as part of transitioning to an energy-wise society,to reduce the energy losses to consumers from generation by accelerating the switch from conventional energy generation to renewable energy sources,as well as inverte

179、rization of final user equipment(motors,lights,etc.).Furthermore,the conventional electricity system is almost entirely based on AC transmission lines linked to a few large centralized power generation centres.With the increased rollout of renewable energy sources,the power generation centres are be

180、coming smaller,more distributed and located further away from consumers,which means the future electricity system will include an increasing mix of DC transmission lines and grids.2.1.2 Power distribution and grid (AC,DC)Globally,the electricity sector is accelerating its transition to become more s

181、ustainable,and the most important change involved is the increasing share of VRE in global electricity generation.In the IEA Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario(NZE),this share is expected to increase from 29%in 2020 to 60%in 2030,mainly driven by the growth of solar and wind energy capacity install

182、ations 16.Figure 2-1|Losses in the conventional electricity system based on fossil fuelsThermal/nuclear generationTransmission&distribution gridsEnd users/consumersPrimary energyUseful energy 55-60%as wasted heat 5%to operate the plants Fossil fuels Nuclear 5-7%increasing with the distance 5%for mot

183、ors 10%for LED 40%for pumps/fans 90%for incandescent bulbs30Power electronics trends and future perspectivesThis market development trend has multiple consequences.On one hand,the VRE has to be transmitted from the decentralized production sites to the large user sites across large distances and wit

184、h as low electrical energy losses as possible.This is the case,for example,of offshore wind installations or large solar installations in the desert.On the other hand,power systems are experiencing large-scale inverter-based resource(IBR)integration,which involves fundamental changes in their design

185、 and operation principles.With an increasing share of electrical energy flowing through power converters,the grid inertia constant is lower and there are faster deviation rates of frequency.The conventional grid stabilization achieved from conventional generators now becomes a requirement for the IB

186、Rs which are increasingly required to support the power system operation and improve its reliability and resiliency.FACTS are also used in power grids to improve their efficiency,reliability,and flexibility through controlling power flows and voltage levels.By doing so,they help to optimize the use

187、of the grid infrastructure and reduce the need for costly upgrades.FACTS can also improve the stability of the grid by damping out voltage and current oscillations,thereby reducing the risk of power outages and blackouts.Additionally,FACTS can help to facilitate the integration of renewable energy s

188、ources into the grid by smoothing out fluctuations in power output and improving the quality of the power supplied to consumers.When connecting VRE(e.g.offshore wind farms)to the grid,the distance to the nearest strong grid connection point,can be more than 100-150 km away from the generation site.A

189、dditionally,the energy then has to be transmitted to highly populated/industrialized areas which can be located thousands of kilometres away from the first grid connection point.The alternative of transporting VRE as DC current becomes competitive both from an investment and operational cost perspec

190、tive with increasing power rating and transmission distance.The HVDC technology is a highly efficient alternative to AC for transmitting large amounts of electricity with greater stability and lower electrical losses.It enables secure and stable interconnection of power networks that operate on diff

191、erent voltages and frequencies(i.e.are asynchronous)or are otherwise incompatible.It also provides instant and precise control of the power flow and can increase the AC grid capacity with its stabilizing features.The most straightforward HVDC configuration is a point-to-point connection of a convert

192、er installed close to the VRE generation point,and a converter located close to the nearest grid connection point.So far,most of the HVDC connections in operation are of this type.Some recent projects also include multiple,parallel point-to-point HVDC links or a multiterminal HVDC system.For many de

193、cades,thyristor-based load commutated converter(LCC)systems have been used for feeding electric power from large hydropower stations in remote locations to urban areas far away via a DC overhead line.Interconnecting grids in different areas or at different frequencies have been another application.W

194、ith the market introduction of voltage source converter(VSC)-based HVDC systems,new applications became possible,for example the HVDC connection of offshore windfarms,as,contrary to LCC,VSC systems offer black start and islanding operation(i.e.grid forming)capabilities without the need for directly

195、connected synchronous generators.Currently,both LCC-HVDC and VSC-HVDC provide transmission losses lower than 0,75%of their power rating.LCC-HVDC systems operate at 800 kV and up to 1 100 kV for a maximum power rating up to 12 GW,and VSC-HVDC systems operate at moderate voltages of up to 320 kV for a

196、 maximum power rating of up to 4 GW.Companies involved in the HVDC market were among the first to consider life cycle assessment(LCA)as an integral part of the design,production and marketing value proposition.For 31Power electronics trends and future perspectivesexample,it was calculated that energ

197、y losses generate more than 95%CO2 equivalent emissions during the HVDC lifetime,and even different generations of VSC-HVDC systems with different power semiconductor devices can be reliably compared in terms of total carbon footprint per GWh as in Figure 2-2 17.The HVDC market has grown consistentl

198、y at a CAGR of about 11%,reaching 200 GW cumulative installed capacity by 2020 18.Driven by grid integration of VRE and grid stabilization applications,the market for HVDC systems could reach more than 50 GW of annual installed capacity by 2030.It is also expected that more than 35 GW of new VSC-HVD

199、C capacity will have been installed between 2020 and 2028 19.HVDC systems are designed for an operating time of at least 20 years.Thus,dedicated protection concepts that limit the effect of power semiconductor device failures to individual components,while avoiding end of life failures,were required

200、 to enable the implementation of VSC inverters with specially designed silicon IGBT modules or with IGBT modules as used in industrial medium voltage drives(MVD)and traction converters.However,due to long operating lifetimes,it is expected that silicon thyristors and IGBTs will remain the dominant p

201、ower semiconductor devices in HVDC applications in the medium term(5-10 years).Furthermore,recent innovations in these power semiconductor devices combining IGBT and free-wheeling diode(FWD)functionality into the same semiconductor die,have enabled a significant step in the performance of VSC-HVDC s

202、ystems,which are expected to account for the bulk of worldwide HVDC installations by 2030.2.1.3 Photovoltaic generationPhotovoltaic(PV)generation is a clean,safe and sustainable power generation method and thus holds the potential for becoming one of the main pillars of energy generation in an energ

203、y-wise society.It has been estimated that an earth surface of 500 000 to 1 000 000 km2 fully covered by PV cells(under ideal illumination conditions)would secure the entire global energy consumption in 2030(for comparison,this surface would equal the area of a medium-sized country).The global energy

204、 crisis is driving an accelerated growth of solar PV capacity,and the IEA estimates that more than 4 200 GW of cumulative PV capacity must be added under the Net Zero Emissions by 2030 Scenario,thus surpassing generation from coal,natural gas and hydropower sources.In 2022,about 268 GW of PV install

205、ed capacity was reported,up from 150 GW in 2021 20 21.Figure 2-2|LCA analysis of two different generations of HVDC system,using a standard silicon IGBT,and an advanced silicon IGBT concept20121211109876543210Now11TonnesCO2e per GWh4TonnesCO2e per GWh67%Reduction of CO2e32Power electronics trends and

206、 future perspectivesThe DC generated by a solar PV panel requires a PV inverter for transformation to sinusoidal AC at a specific frequency in order to drive an AC load or to connect to the power grid.Alternatively,it would be possible to use the DC current to charge a battery system for energy stor

207、age.Power semiconductors constitute the key components of a PV inverter,and their performance plays an important role in power conversion efficiency and in ensuring the overall reliability of a PV inverter.In the inverter circuit,the DC to AC conversion is realized by commanding each power semicondu

208、ctor to turn on and off in a specific sequence.In order to achieve higher energy efficiency in a cost-sensitive application,PV inverters with two-or three-level inverter stages,with or without employment of an additional frontend boost converter,became the industry standard in residential,commercial

209、 roof top and large PV plant installations,with power ratings ranging from several kilowatts(kW)to several megawatts(MW).Silicon IGBTs are used in many PV inverter designs.To fulfil the requirements for grid-code harmonics,a sine filter must be placed between the PV inverter and the grid.Wide bandga

210、p semiconductors,such as silicon carbide metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors(SiC MOSFET),allow the switching frequencies to be further increased compared with silicon IGBTs,which results in smaller filter sizes while providing even higher efficiencies.PV inverters achieve up to 99%pea

211、k energy efficiency and provide a high reliability and lifetime of 20 years,when the relevant physics of failures and mission profiles are considered in the inverter design.Developments are underway towards increasing the operating voltages for very large PV installations to above 1 500 V,in order t

212、o reduce electrical current levels and thus the size and cost of electrical cables.In this case,power semiconductors with increased blocking voltage ratings of 2 000 V or higher might be beneficial.A proper framework of standards on power semiconductors must ensure that the high levels of lifetime a

213、nd reliability can be maintained in spite of increased power density and cost pressure trends.Presently,to achieve this high level of reliability,tests additional to those in existing standards need to be developed and performed individually by power semiconductor device and PV inverter manufacturer

214、s,thus increasing the development costs and the time to market.2.1.4 Wind generationOn and off-shore wind turbines represent one of the most promising categories of VRE generators as envisioned by an energy-wise society.Power electronics are essential for grid connection of all state-of-the-art vari

215、able speed wind turbines.Reliable,durable and cost-effective power semiconductors are therefore the key to a reliable and cost-effective wind electricity generation.According to the IEA NZE the annual wind generation capacity additions will need to be increased from approximately 75 GW in 2022 to 35

216、0 GW in 2030 at a significant CAGR of almost 20%22.The wind turbine technologies can be based either on doubly fed induction generators(DFIG)with a back-to-back converter at the rotor of the generator machine or can be directly driven with any kind of three-phase AC generator machine and a back-to-b

217、ack converter connected to the stator of the generator.In DFIG turbines usually just a portion of the output power of the generator is handled by the wind converter.In directly driven turbines a fully rated wind converter is needed to handle all the output power of the generator,and thus energy effi

218、ciency becomes a key performance parameter.Lower voltage IGBT-based solutions are used in todays multi-megawatt wind converters,which in most cases involve low voltage two-level voltage source topologies with an AC output voltage between 400 V and 1 000 V.With modular or 33Power electronics trends a

219、nd future perspectivesmulti-level power electronics solutions,this voltage level can be further increased to reduce the current requirements.For very high current and high voltage/low frequency wind converters with ratings of above 12 MW,silicon integrated gate commutated thyristor(IGCT)devices are

220、considered as alternative power semiconductors.The power rating output voltages of newer generations of wind turbines are continuously being increased to surpass 15 MW.In such converters,the high power combined with relatively low voltage levels leads to large electrical currents and thereby large c

221、onductor cross sections and thermal problems within the converter.To achieve even higher power density,power semiconductors with increased blocking voltage or modular power electronic solutions are needed.Using the limits of the standards for low voltage inverters is attractive.1 000 V AC is an attr

222、active voltage class,leading to 1 500 V nominal and up to 1 800 V maximum DC voltage.Power semiconductors for this voltage level are rare,as the blocking voltage should be in the range of 2 300 V to 2 500 V.To increase the power density of the generator side inverters,the temperature ripple due to l

223、ow fundamental frequency or the sensitivity to temperature swings must be reduced.Different promising technologies exist for reaching this goal.Reverse conducting silicon IGBTs use the same semiconductor chip in the IGBT-and the diode-modes,which leads to a significantly better transient thermal imp

224、edance and thereby to a significant reduction of the temperature ripple.Special double-sided cooled modules with silicon IGBTs offer a high thermal capacitance with a good thermal coupling to the semiconductor chips and a high robustness,if the semiconductor chips are sintered.To fulfil the grid cod

225、e requirements for harmonics,a filter must be placed between the wind converter and the low frequency transformer required for grid connection.This filter is the heaviest component of a wind converter.To reduce the size of this filter,the switching frequency of the power semiconductors in the wind c

226、onverter must be increased or multilevel circuit topologies must be utilized.This would represent a motivation for using SiC MOSFETs in such applications in the long term.If sustainability and life cycle aspects would be more consistently considered at the converter design stage,it is estimated that

227、 WBG power semiconductors could provide an overall lower CO2 footprint(e.g.reduced filter size means also that less materials are required for manufacturing).The transportation of a smaller wind converter and filter system would also generate less CO2 under current means of transportation.Wind turbi

228、nes are designed for an operating lifetime of at least 20 years,i.e.end of life failures should not occur before 20 years.Spare parts have to be available 20 years after commissioning the last turbine of a series which might be 25 to 30 years after converter development.Recent improvements in power

229、module assembly and interconnection technology(joining technologies such as sintering and copper bond wires)address the challenge of power cycling present in DFIG turbines and directly driven full converter designs and contribute to increased operating lifetimes.Because such applications traditional

230、ly have longer design cycles and operating lifetime requirements,newer power semiconductor technologies could have a reduced commercial impact in the medium term(next 5-10 years)compared to the more established technologies.2.1.5 Green hydrogen generationGreen hydrogen could play a key role in the g

231、reen energy chain,and according to the IEA NZE,the equivalent of more than 550 GW of electrolysers would have to be installed by 2030,up from the 1 GW installed base at the end of 2022 23.Due to the amount of power and energy required in marine and off-highway applications,hydrogen is seen as an alt

232、ernative to classical batteries in these sectors.In addition,green hydrogen has the potential to help with the intermittent nature of solar 34Power electronics trends and future perspectivesand wind generators,while replacing natural gas in industrial chemical processes(decarbonizing heavy industrie

233、s such as steel and fertilizers).The large-scale electrolysers will need to be integrated into the power grids in the multi-GW range via power converters.In addition,they would have to be powered entirely by VRE and,contrary to classical electrolysers,would need to be able to adapt to the variabilit

234、y in available energy.Furthermore,the efficiency of green H2 electrolysers is still low,and traditionally they have been built in small volumes for niche markets leading to high prices.Power quality,efficiency,cost and reliability are several of the electrolyser systems critical performance metrics,

235、which can be significantly affected by the selection of power semiconductors and of the circuit topology of power electronic converters.Thyristor-based AC/DC converters have been dominating solutions in high-power applications due to their high robustness,high efficiency,and low cost.A commercial th

236、yristor-based converter can supply 1,5-10 kA DC current with a DC voltage of 1 000 V,delivering a maximum of 10 MW power per unit.Hybrid solutions also exist combining an AC/DC converter with thyristor and an DC/DC converter based on silicon IGBTs in order to address the expectation that electrolyse

237、rs connected to renewable energy sources will run 45%of the time at only 12,5%of the full load 24.Energy efficiency improvements in the converter(from 94%to 98%)will continue to be key for reducing the cost of systems by using high current densities,achieving higher energy efficiency across the enti

238、re range of operating conditions,and minimising voltage degradation over time.This would also lead to a significant reduction in size and cost savings of the converters cooling system.Current distortion and fundamental power factor are other critical parameters,requiring the use of additional equipm

239、ent,more complex circuit topologies or even a change to an active front end(AFE)rectifier with silicon IGBTs or SiC MOSFETs 25.2.1.6 Solid state transformers and solid-state circuit breakersImplementing the vision of an energy-wise society will require massive development of electrical generation,tr

240、ansmission and distribution infrastructures.Such developments are driven by the increased share of VREs in the total electricity generation capacity and by increased demand for electricity in buildings and industries,due to economic growth and the phasing-out of fossil fuels.With this development co

241、mes an increased demand for reliable and secure electrical distribution systems,and DC power grids(i.e.DC distribution networks)could help address such challenges and reduce the needed investments.The market for DC power grids is conservatively projected to grow to more than 5 680 MW installed by 20

242、30,with a CAGR of 14%between 2021 and 2030.Corresponding spending is expected to reach almost USD 24 billion annually by the end of this decade 26.Power semiconductors and power electronics constitute key technologies enabling the realization of DC power grids.For example,local/on-site low-voltage D

243、C(LVDC)power grids are considered a promising approach for efficient on-site power distribution,and for integration of energy storage(for providing certain auxiliary and/or peak load buffering),fuel cells or renewable energy such as solar photovoltaics.Due to the power levels required(ranging from h

244、undreds of kilowatts to several megawatts),these on-site LVDC grids require interfaces to medium-voltage(MV)power distribution grids,i.e.to AC or DC collector grids of PV large power plants or to medium voltage alternating current(MVAC)distribution systems.In the mid-to long-term,solid-state transfo

245、rmer(SST)concepts,involving power electronics connected to the MV grid using a compact,high-frequency(HF)isolation/transformer,could be better suited in such applications compared to traditional power transformers operating at low frequency/line frequency.The emphasis in such SSTs is on the developm

246、ent of MV-side power electronics 35Power electronics trends and future perspectivesand on the advanced protection thereof.The key challenges affecting SST revolve around the topics of protection,robustness and cost benefits(capital expenditures(CapEx)and operational expenditures(OpEx),especially at

247、increasing power and voltage levels.Competing with low frequency transformers becomes challenging at power levels in the megawatt range and above,as traditional transformers scale in cost,weight,size and losses differently than SSTs,which are modular systems.However,the introduction of SSTs is not t

248、o be regarded as a one-by-one replacement of the conventional transformer,involving the limited additional functionality of stepping up/down the voltage between the primary and secondary sides.Instead,SSTs will allow high penetration of VRE,integration of energy storage in the electric distribution

249、grid,and electrification of transport and heating 27 28.Another area of application in which power semiconductors are gradually being applied on a commercial scale involves solid-state circuit breakers(SSCB)29.The first SSCB products using silicon IGCTs and certified according to the IEC 60947-2 sta

250、ndard were introduced to the market recently.Electromechanical circuit breakers have been used traditionally to protect electrical installations and ensure their safety in fault conditions(for example during short circuits).A faulty part of an electrical distribution system can be disconnected while

251、 keeping the rest of the grid active.Complete electrical distribution system shutdowns can be avoided,thus maximizing uptime,and minimizing revenue losses.The electromechanical breakers rely on current interruption during the zero-crossing phase of the AC waveform.Electromechanical breakers can also

252、 protect DC grids(e.g.large PV plant installations,batteries in EVs,and energy storage systems in power grids,etc.)albeit at the cost of increased internal complexity.SSCBs could constitute an enabling technology for the growth of DC power grids because they offer ultrafast protection capability and

253、 potentially fault-selectivity.In a SSCB,the moving contacts of traditional electromechanical circuit breakers are replaced with controllable power semiconductors.By using power semiconductors,the flow of electrical current can be better controlled and interrupted under fault conditions.Because they

254、 contain no moving parts,SSCBs are much faster than electromechanical circuit breakers which take longer than milliseconds to react to a fault in the electrical distribution system(from the moment the fault condition has been detected).A simpler electromechanical part may still be used in order to e

255、nsure galvanic isolation,in conformity with most electrical codes.In addition,a SSCB interrupts the current without generating an electrical arc and,in theory,could have lower maintenance costs compared to electromechanical breakers,although an insufficient amount of field data exists to confirm suc

256、h a beneficial trend.Both silicon-based and silicon carbide-based power semiconductors can play a determining role in SSCBs,as the voltage and current ratings of SSCBs are continuously being expanded to match the requirements of both low power(i.e.battery protection in battery management systems(BMS

257、)as well as high power applications(i.e.HVDC grids).Newer concepts have been proposed using both technologies simultaneously in a cost-effective hybrid configuration.Such a configuration allows achieving the lowest conduction losses under nominal operating currents,while maintaining the highest resi

258、lience and reliability under high fault currents.Decreasing the conduction losses of SSCBs by using improved power semiconductors would enable further energy savings over the lifetime of the applications and would also result in lower costs and reduction of the footprint,as the additional cooling sy

259、stem would be smaller.Moreover,new power semiconductor module standards might be required in connection with SSCBs,because the majority of power modules have been specified and designed in connection with converter applications.36Power electronics trends and future perspectives2.1.7 Mobility infrast

260、ructuresThree standard charging levels are used to charge electric vehicles.All EVs can be charged with either Level 1 or Level 2 chargers working with AC current/voltage.Such chargers can be found at homes or public locations and can charge an EV for a range of 200 km in about 5-20 hours.Level 3 ch

261、argers working with DC current/voltage also called direct current fast chargers(DCFC)or fast charging stations(when multiple units are installed)can charge an EV for a range of 200 km in less than 30 minutes.A typical Level 2 home charger or a DCFC operates within a range of approximately 83-96%of p

262、eak energy efficiency,when considering the conversion losses from grid to battery.Commercial DCFCs rated 300-350 kW already support battery charging voltages between 150 V and 1 000 V and currents of up to 1 000 A across DC outputs.Various stakeholders employ set charging power above 1 MW in order t

263、o maintain reasonable charging times(“ultra-fast”chargers)30 31.The chargers function most of the time in standby mode with no vehicle connected(approximately 85%of the time),so a requirement exists to use less energy in standby mode.In order to support the rollout of EVs at the significant scale re

264、quired for an energy-wise society,public charging infrastructures must be deployed at an accelerated pace.It is estimated that 16,9 million charging stations would have to be installed worldwide by 2030 32,up from an installed base of 2,7 million units in 2022 33.Most DCFCs are expected to be instal

265、led along highways to offer fast battery charging for long-distance drives.Multiple DCFCs installed in the same location constitute a fast-charging station,which can have a total power capacity of several MW.For such installations,the direct connection to the medium-voltage(MV)grid is preferred to a

266、void overloading of the low-voltage(LV)grid,while each DCFC is connected to an internal LV distribution network.Several approaches were proposed for direct connection to the MV grid using a low frequency transformer,while the LV distribution network inside the station can be either AC or DC as shown

267、 in Figure 2-3 34.The AC distribution network is mature and,having been adopted by most state-of-the-art installations,will remain in the near future the mainstream solution.Nevertheless,the DC network configuration may prove more advantageous,having fewer conversion stages and simpler integration o

268、f chargers.Considering the larger batteries involved and the higher power charging intended for larger heavy-duty vehicles,the charging infrastructure represents a larger stress to the power grid.For these reasons,such charging stations will most likely include on-site energy storage elements and ge

269、neration in order to reduce the power usage peaks and also perform other ancillary grid services 35 36.However,connecting power electronics to the MV grid also introduces a number of issues in terms of safety and protection that need careful mitigation 37.An alternative development in this market in

270、volves high-power wireless power transfer systems that use a ground primary coil and a vehicle secondary coil to convert the alternating current from the grid into a magnetic field that transfers power over the air gap between the two coils.This power transfer is effected under high frequency magnet

271、ic resonance conditions(around 85 kHz)with specially designed low-loss resonators.By featuring a contactless power transfer,wireless chargers are in principle safer with respect to potential electric shock risks compared to cable-based solutions and may even allow dynamic charging while the vehicle

272、is moving.However,this technology needs further improvements in terms of charging power ratings(currently limited to about 50 kW per pair of coils for a passenger EV)and energy efficiency(for typical commercial systems around 90-92%source to vehicle battery)to compete with well-established cable bas

273、ed DCFC,especially at MW power levels 38.37Power electronics trends and future perspectivesSiC power semiconductors are expected to play a key role in vehicle charger applications,leading to better energy efficiency,higher operating frequency and high-power density.Taking as a reference a DCFC syste

274、m rated at 22 kW,the AC/DC stage is implemented as an active front end(AFE)circuit topology,with six silicon IGBTs switching at 20 kHz,and can achieve a peak energy efficiency of 97,2%and a power density of about 3,5 kW/L.If SiC MOSFETs are used to replace the silicon IGBTs,the switching frequency c

275、an be increased to 45 kHz,the peak energy efficiency to 98,5%and the power density to 4,6 kW/L.The magnetic components in the DCFC can be made smaller,and it is possible to have bi-directional power flow capability(i.e.from the EV to the grid and from the grid to the EV).The impact of SiC MOSFETs is

276、 even more pronounced in the DC/DC stage,also rated at 22 kW,where the circuit topology is based on resonant switching.Silicon-based power semiconductors operate in this case at around 100 kHz and can achieve a peak energy efficiency of 97,5%and a power density of 3,5 kW/L.By using SiC MOSFETs,the s

277、witching frequency can be increased to 250 kHz,the peak energy efficiency to 98,5%and the power density at 8 kW/L 39.2.1.8 Energy storage for grid stabilizationEnergy storage systems(ESS)deliver a wide range of services that cover all segments of the energy value stream,ranging from conventional and

278、 renewable generation,transmission and distribution up to the final customer.Table 2-1 shows a classification of the main envisioned applications for grid scale battery energy storage.Power electronics is the key technology in ESS for providing power flow control,conditioning,and acting as the inter

279、face for increasingly intelligent and complex energy and transport systems.The initial scope of grid-connected ESSs was to address the challenge of intermittency of VRE,balance supply and demand issues,and effectively take surplus energy for later use.Today,the power Figure 2-3|Typical configuration

280、s for DC charging stations (a)Fast charging station with low frequency transformer and AC distribution network (b)SST-enabled fast charging station with DC distribution network38Power electronics trends and future perspectiveselectronics community is called upon to help address several challenges re

281、lated to ESS such as:1)increasingly stringent grid requirements;2)the need to integrate high-power semiconductor devices;3)the drive for lower-cost energy with high efficiency and reliability.In the IEA NZE,a cumulative 970 GW of battery energy storage would have to be installed by 2030,up from an i

282、nstalled capacity of 28 GW at the end of 2022 40.In the power grid of an energy-wise society that relies on VRE,the ESS serves through converter interfaces at the transmission level,at the distribution level and at the customer/end-user side in large-scale(GW-levels,voltages between 69 kV to 765 kV)

283、,medium-scale(MW-levels,voltages between 4 kV to 46 kV)or micro-scale(kW-levels,voltages 3 300 V.Higher dynamic temperature variations are expected during operation,and careful consideration must be given to thermal cycling and to changes in power semiconductor parameters with temperature.It is impo

284、rtant to determine the appropriate failure threshold parameter settings to maintain the reliability and safety of the ESS.Standard requirements related to frequency and voltage support have been proposed to support grid-integrated ESS during transient and contingency events.For example,the converter

285、 needs to consume a certain amount of reactive power to help lower the voltage range at the grid connection point 43.Different standards define frequency droop characteristics at different levels 44.When the frequency returns to the rated range,the inverter should maintain its maximum power output f

286、or a given period of time before returning to charging mode to reduce the risk of unstable operation.During the recovery time,the ESS inverter needs to follow the power ramp rate specified in the corresponding standard(16%of the rated power per minute,as stipulated by the local regulations).These st

287、andard specifications for ESS define important application specific requirements that have a direct impact on the power semiconductor devices used in ESS.Therefore,they should find their way into new standards for power semiconductor devices in the form of relevant test methods or reliability proced

288、ures.2.2 Electrification application User sector introductionApplications in the user sector are expanding at a faster rate than ever before,driven by regulations aiming at 2030 and 2050,and by public interest.The key concepts of electrification in a broad sense target zero CO2 emission across the e

289、ntire value chain,increased energy savings,comfortable living and working environments,and/or flexible and reliable systems for transportation.The electric power required for the user sector should be generated from VRE sources including PV panels,wind turbines,hydro and geothermal/wave/tide generat

290、ors.Transitioning the user sector towards an energy-wise society requires a strong interdisciplinary approach.Electrical engineering fields including power electronics and power semiconductors,electrical motors and power systems must involve closer aspects of mechanical engineering,control engineeri

291、ng,civil engineering,and the latest information and communications technologies.For example,as the number of inverterized applications will continue to increase in factory automation and home appliances,the impact of the power electronics on voltage regulation and stability,as well as harmonic and e

292、lectromagnetic interference(EMI)issues,will have to be better understood and managed.At the same time,advanced thermal and heat-transfer engineering combined with power semiconductor devices offering lower losses could boost the uptake of power electronic applications in electrified mobility.40Power

293、 electronics trends and future perspectives2.2.1 Electrified mobilityToday the major share of transportation of persons as well as of materials is performed using combustion engines powered by fossil fuels.Although technically possible,the replacement of fossil fuels by e-fuels manufactured using re

294、newable energy will be commercially attractive only in some specific instances such as intercontinental transportation by aircraft or ship or heavy-duty trucks on long-haul routes.For all other areas of mobility,electrification will be the more efficient and more economical choice.It should be consi

295、dered that electrification may go beyond converting the established internal combustion engine to EVs,to instead modifying the very way persons and materials are transported.Electrification is more easily implemented in larger units than in individual transport,and track-based systems can be electri

296、fied more easily than road vehicles.Electrification may also include a partial shift from individual transport in passenger cars/trucks and from short and medium distance flights to public transportation by electrified solutions such as railway and bus networks.2.2.2 AutomotiveVarious vehicle manufa

297、cturers are targeting to reduce CO2 emissions over the entire vehicle life cycle up to 2030 by more than 50%45 46.The IEA NZE would require an electric vehicle fleet of over 250 million units in 2030 and EVs accounting for 67%of new car sales up from 14%in 2022 32.Assuming clean electricity is used

298、for charging,a major part of CO2 emissions will then be created during the production of the vehicle.From a life cycle perspective,the battery production is associated with more than 40%of the CO2 emissions during vehicle production compared to less than few percentages for all electronics component

299、s 47 48.Power electronics is an enabling technology for the advancement of environmentally friendly and fuel-efficient vehicles such as battery electric(BEV),hybrid electric(HEV),and fuel cell(FCV)vehicles.For EVs,the use of power semiconductors is mainly reflected in the on-board charger(OBC)system

300、,battery management system(BMS),high-voltage load,high-voltage to low-voltage DC-DC converter,main drive inverter,etc.The cost of the power semiconductor content per vehicle is currently higher than USD 330,an order of magnitude comparatively larger than that of an internal combustion engine vehicle

301、,and this will further increase for more complex vehicle architectures and higher kW ratings per vehicle with higher WBG semiconductor content 49.Power semiconductors constitute the key components for reaching high energy efficiency,or for extending the range of EVs.The superior performance of SiC p

302、ower semiconductors can improve efficiency and power density,which are particularly important for automotive applications.The high maximum operating junction temperature capability of the SiC power semiconductors reduces the cooling requirements for OBC and DC/DC converters to air cooling from liqui

303、d cooling.The high control bandwidth of SiC power semiconductors can enhance the stability and power quality and reduce the design margin and filter needed in the system,which can directly translate into weight reduction in BEVs 50.On average,the range of EVs has increased by 12%annually in recent y

304、ears driven mainly by improved battery technology.1 200 V SiC MOSFET power modules are used for main drive inverters with very high output power in BEVs with long range,fast charging capability and high battery voltages.In order to understand the benefits of a SiC MOSFET,the concept of a“mission pro

305、file”must be introduced.During most of its operating time,the BEVs main drive inverter must handle electrical currents below 30%of its maximum ratings.This is the case for example when the BEV is cruising on a highway,which is referred to as“partial load”operation.When the BEV accelerates,the electr

306、ical current through the BEVs main drive 41Power electronics trends and future perspectivesinverter increases and approaches the maximum ratings.This is referred to as“full load”operation.Under partial load operation,SiC MOSFET-based inverters offer higher energy efficiency(i.e.lower electrical loss

307、es)than their silicon IGBT counterparts 51.This is clearly illustrated in Figure 2-4,where the energy efficiency of a SiC MOSFET-based main drive inverter(blue line)is larger than the energy efficiency of a silicon IGBT-based inverter(red line),in particular under partial load conditions 52 53.Conse

308、quently,the range of the vehicle can be improved by more than 5%compared to using silicon devices 54,or the size of the batteries can be reduced to maintain the same vehicle range while reducing CO2 emissions during the production of the vehicle.Therefore,automotive applications are expected to use

309、79%of the worldwide SiC power semiconductors capacity by 2027 12,and the overall SiC market size will depend on the SiC implementation in the main drive inverters of the market-leading vehicle manufacturers.To reduce to less than 20 minutes the time required for charging large batteries from 10%to 8

310、0%of their state of charge(SOC),it is expected that battery voltages will be increased from currently used values of 800850 V to 1 000 V DC.The reason for this is that higher-voltage inverters enable higher power capability while maintaining the same current levels.This results in copper conductors

311、and other components being smaller,lighter and less expensive.SiC is already established in main drive inverters for long range electric vehicles and in the boost converter for a fuel cell electric vehicle(FCEV).Due to the trend of increased battery voltage,1 200 V SiC MOSFETs are being considered f

312、or use in OBCs and DC/DC converters for EVs approximately by 2025 and also for HEVs and plug-in HEVs.GaN HEMT devices are currently available for low voltage applications,e.g.light detection and ranging(LIDAR),and GaN HEMT high voltage devices are expected to be introduced for DC/DC converters and O

313、BC later.For main inverter applications,more complex multilevel topologies would be needed and are being evaluated.To further increase the power density in automotive applications,it is also necessary to advance the development of integrated power electronics.Because of the benefits of WBG Figure 2-

314、4|Energy efficiency of SiC-MOSFET vs Silicon IGBT based main drive inverters as a function of the electrical current through the inverter(“load”)NOTE:Only the energy losses in the semiconductors are considered.42Power electronics trends and future perspectivespower semiconductors,such as high temper

315、ature operating capability,high switching frequency and current density,such semiconductors are best suited for integrated applications.In addition to the area of passenger cars,which represents the largest volume in units,applications in commercial and off-road heavy-duty vehicles,used for example

316、in agriculture,mining and construction,have also to be considered.Contrary to passenger cars,in such automotive applications different requirements need to be considered,such as wider range of power ratings,longer lifetime requirements and in some instances more severe environments.New functions,(e.

317、g.bidirectional charging),will result in extended hours of operation of power electronics and therefore increased requirements concerning quality reliability and qualification efforts.In order to serve the elevated needs for quality and reliability,improved qualification guidelines were developed(e.

318、g.JEDEC,AQG 324)with new failure mechanisms for WBG devices.The dynamic growth and development of technology on the one hand and standardization on the other hand require a continuous alignment over the entire supply chain and the involved organizations.Adapted guidelines are needed to support a sus

319、tainable growth of the market to enable the targeted CO2 savings.For heavy-duty vehicles,guidelines and standards from industrial and railway traction applications might also be relevant.2.2.3 RailwayRailway rolling stock with its traction and auxiliary power supply systems is a strong and steadily

320、growing power semiconductor market.An energy-wise society is expected to boost an ever-larger share of transportation from individual to mass transit,and the same is expected for freight transportation,where rail competes with the road.Furthermore,climate change is fostering the introduction of batt

321、eries or hydrogen as an alternative source for diesel powered vehicles.More customers are placing a higher weighting on energy consumption and demand products with minimized costs over the entire life cycle.The introduction of alternative energy sources will increase the pressure on energy efficienc

322、y.Rolling stock is currently seeing the transition from Si-IGBT to SiC technology,driven by energy efficiency requirements and size/weight constraints.The transition speed can be expected to increase with the current energy situation.An acceleration can also be expected with new power converter conc

323、epts(e.g.the direct connection to the overhead line voltage),fast chargers or DC-DC converters for battery supplied trains.As a standard,all rail vehicles use an inverter(INV)for the main traction drive and if applicable an active rectifier on the line side.In addition,power electronic function also

324、 has to cover braking(BC),sometimes buck/boost functions(DC-In)to adjust to different line voltages and generation of auxiliary voltages(AUX)for internal supply and customer comfort(see Figure 2-5).This results in a large spectrum of semiconductor voltage classes from 1 200 V to 6 500 V and a power

325、range from a few 10 kW to multiple MW(see Figure 2-6).Common requirements in traction applications include wide temperature operating range,high load and power cycling requirements combined with expected high reliability and a lifetime of more than 30 years.This must be fulfilled through restriction

326、s on space and weight,delivering at the same time best-in-class energy efficiency.While for the main inverter and active rectifier,the standard two-level circuit topology is predominant,several other structures can be found in other converters.Converters for auxiliary power supply use resonant-switc

327、hing and multi-level circuit topologies.With the high requirements on voltage quality,passive filters are also required.In addition,multiple DC-DC circuit topologies are used,with hard-switching and interleaved-switching.All 43Power electronics trends and future perspectivesconverter systems operate

328、 for a large proportion of time under partial load.The weighed efficiency together with the efficiency in recuperation determines the overall energy consumption.Since the start of this century the workhorse in traction has been the silicon-based IGBT power converter,with a wide range of used voltage

329、 classes and current capability.Recent years have seen the gradual introduction of SiC-based semiconductors.Few solutions use hybrid technology(silicon IGBT together with SiC Schottky barrier diodes(SiC-SBD).The majority use the SiC based MOSFET.Applications can be found in the main inverter with 3

330、300 V as well as for light rail at 1 700 V or auxiliary systems with 1 200 V SiC-MOSFET.Figure 2-5|Generic architecture of the traction and auxiliary power supply systemFigure 2-6|Typical railway stock applications and required power semiconductor voltages44Power electronics trends and future perspe

331、ctivesThe transition to SiC is expected to accelerate in the near future(3 300 V)are expected to facilitate the full transition.Higher blocking voltages are also needed to deliver cost-effective solutions to replace the main line frequency transformer by a power electronics-based solution.Improvemen

332、t by power semiconductors(module technology)Todays semiconductor performance in traction is still limited by the load and power cycling capability of the packaging technology.New technologies also forced by automotive applications are expected to improve performance and lead to a better cost situati

333、on,especially for SiC-based semiconductors,where chip area is a large cost factor.Railways are often confronted with high humidity conditions:more reliable packaging solutions are expected.Extended application of power semiconductors in new solution-fields in railwaysInnovative solutions in the form of motor integrated inverters for self-operating bogies require a significant increase in power den