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1、OCTOBER 2024Biodiversity and the EconomyBirds of a FeatherInstitut Montaigne is a leading independent think tank based in Paris.Our pragmatic research and ideas aim to help governments,industry and societies to adapt to our complex world.Institut Montaignes publications and events focus on major eco

2、nomic,societal,technological,environmental and geopolitical changes.We aim to serve the public interest through instructive analysis on French and European public policies and by providing an open and safe space for rigorous policy debate.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER3Biodiversity

3、and the EconomyBirds of a FeatherREPORT-October 2024ExplainerTo understand the world in which we operateReportDeep-dive analyses and long-term policy solutionsIssue PaperTo break down the key challenges facing societiesExclusive InsightsUnique data-driven analyses and practical scenario exercisesPol

4、icy PaperTo provide practical recommenda-tionsInstitut Montaignes reports are comprehensive analyses that result from collective reflection.They aim to put forward long-term solutions to todays most pressing public policy challenges.5Table of ContentsSummary .8Summary of Recommendations .12Introduct

5、ion .151 Biodiversity Is Under Threat .241.1.Framework 1:The Five Pressures on Biodiversity .24a.Changes in Use of Land and Sea .26b.Pollution .29c.Overexploited Resources .33d.Invasive Alien Species .39e.Climate Change .411.2.Framework 2:Planetary Boundaries,The Last Red Line?.47a.Planetary Boundar

6、ies:Genesis of a Concept .47b.Climate and Biodiversity:Synergies to Develop .57INSTITUT MONTAIGNE62 Our Economic Prosperity Is Directly Dependent on Biodiversity .612.1.Our Dependence on Nature Is Dangerously Invisible .63a.Ecosystem Services:An Inescapable Reality .63b.Dependence on Biodiversity Is

7、 Underestimated:The Example of Health .66c.Ecosystem Services:Pricing the Priceless?.692.2.Measuring the Impact of Businesses on Biodiversity:A Prerequisite for Action .75a.The Thorny Search for a Single Biodiversity Indicator .75b.A Double Pitfall for Businesses:Inaction and Fragmentation .873 Busi

8、nesses Are Key Protagonists in Combating Biodiversity Loss .923.1.A Growing Mobilization of Financial Institutions and Businesses,Supported by Shared Action Frameworks .92a.From Reporting to Business Model Transformation .92b.Application Frameworks for Assessing the Commitment of Economic Players wi

9、th Regards to Biodiversity .993.2.Biodiversity,Cornerstone of Business Resilience .108a.A Risk-Based Approach Is Necessary but Insufficient .108b.Turning Constraints into Opportunities .112c.How to Value What We Know Little About?.120BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER74 Public Authoriti

10、es Must Support Collective Action .1254.1.Regulating Without Restricting:The Need for Legal Certainty .125a.Achieving the Financial Goals of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework(GBF).125b.Strengthening the Effectiveness of Environmental Law .1334.2.Encourage and Support .136a.Effective

11、 incentives:An Exemplary State,the Driving Force Behind Private Sector Initiatives .136b.Anticipating Crises and Opportunities:For a Multi-Stakeholder Territorial Biodiversity Project .141Conclusion .149Bibliography .173Acknowledgements .1868SummaryThis report is based on a twofold observation:the r

12、apid collapse of bio-diversity due to human activities,and the chronic underestimation of the effects of this collapse on the resilience of societies.Marked by mass species extinction,a reduction in genetic diversity,and the degradation of ecosystems,the accelerating erosion of biodiversity is prima

13、rily due to five human-driven pressures:changes in land use,ove-rexploitation of resources,pollution,climate change,and invasive alien species.These pressures,and the resulting decline in biodiversity,ultima-tely threaten the Earths habitability for the human species.While 50%of the worlds GDP direc

14、tly depends on biodiversity,the signi-ficance of its erosion remains poorly understood.Furthermore,it is often overshadowed by the climate crisis,which is better recognized due to the existence of aggregate indicators to quantify it.The overrepresentation of climate issues in public debate sometimes

15、 leads to an underestimation of the efforts needed to preserve biodiversity.The fight against climate change can,in fact,lead to the implementation of solutions that inad-vertently harm biodiversity,further hindering the crucial role biodiver-sity plays in regulating the climate,such as mitigation a

16、nd adaptation solutions to climate change,including carbon sequestration,reduction of drought and erosion risks,etc.This underestimation is due to conceptual and methodological challen-ges.On a conceptual level,the notion of human beings as living in an urban environment,entirely separate from the e

17、cosystems from which they exploit resources and derive benefits,reduces nature to a disem-bodied concept,and fosters various social and political fantasies.From a methodological perspective,the difficulty in defining aggregate indica-tors to quantify the services provided by nature,as well as the po

18、sitive or negative impacts of human activities,has contributed to inaction or fragmented efforts,hindering effective and efficient action.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER9A collective awareness,shared by businesses and citizens alike,is essen-tial to implementing solutions that reconc

19、ile climate and biodiversity.Constraint and setting examples have fed improvement.Non-financial reporting was a first step toward integrating biodiversity into strategic planning.The second step involves building indicators,although the complexity inherent to living systems makes the creation of a s

20、ingle indicator,similar to CO-equivalent metrics,unrealistic.However,some indicators have been developed to help companies measure their biodi-versity footprint in order to set a path for reducing pressures.The third step involves integrating biodiversity into private sector decision-ma-king.This re

21、quires mapping the issues,dependencies,and risks involved for businesses.Indeed,the ecosystem services that biodiversity provides for free today are largely overlooked,be it economically or in the social consciousness.Although biodiversity preservation is mainly perceived as a constraint,it can quic

22、kly become an opportunity for economic development,one that economic players need only seize and capitalize on.Mechanisms and ini-tiatives designed to manage resources sustainably,such as payments for environmental services or the development of nature-based solutions,must,however,be further explore

23、d and complemented.Recent legislative developments,such as the entry into force of the CSRD,should allow for an initial analysis of the risks,opportunities and impacts across the entire value chain of human activities.The consequences of biodiversity decline on food,health,and industrial sovereignty

24、 also argue in favor of strengthening biodiversity-related cri-teria in trade agreements,with the aim of making biodiversity a compo-nent of European extraterritoriality.The competitiveness of businesses will be dependent on biodiversity preservation,thus requiring further development of environment

25、al and economic diplomacy.It is therefore up to the public authorities to support the changes brought about by private players,to better integrate biodiversity in their business models.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE10While the private sector seems increasingly committed to preserving biodiversity,it continues t

26、o struggle to highlight its actions:labels,cer-tifications and philanthropic initiatives,all suffer from a lack of visibility and credibility.The COP15 on Biodiversity,held in Montreal at the end of 2022,marked the high point in terms of the shared responsibility of states and businesses,both of whi

27、ch have committed to achieving specific tar-gets for reducing strains on biodiversity.In the medium term,ecosystem preservation and business resilience will become imperative,calling for a coherent legislative and fiscal framework at both national and international levels.Harmonizing fiscal measures

28、,some of which go against the objectives of the COP15 on Biodiversity and of the National Biodiversity Strategy,is a priority.To mitigate increased risks of vulnerabilities and inequities between players,it is essential to account for potential social consequences and provide targeted support for th

29、e most vulnerable regions and citizens if we are to ensure the effec-tiveness and social acceptability of these policies.Aware of the challenges,difficulties and opportunities related to achie-ving the COP15 objectives,Institut Montaigne sought to explore the interdependencies between biodiversity a

30、nd the economy.We believe these two sectors to be inextricably linked.Based on this observation,this report recommends that the first course of action be the creation of a European biodiversity framework capable of effectively distributing responsibilities between public and private players.Such a f

31、ramework would require a scientific definition of the key concepts as a starting point.This shared foundation would enable biodiversity to be considered at all necessary levels of decision-making(public authorities,private entities,citizens,etc.)and would facilitate synergies between stakeholders.In

32、deed,reducing strains on biodiver-sity,which is the ultimate goal of COP15,will require the development of stronger synergies between public and private players,particularly at the local level,through experimentation,and technical and organizational BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER11i

33、nnovation.The planetary boundaries and their application at local levels certainly illustrate the opportunities,risks,and constraints within which these players can operate and benefit from their environment,both as a living space and an economic framework.Supporting the integration of biodiversity

34、into resource management and economic models is the second imperative.This involves compensating for additional measures taken by businesses,including agricultural ones,in favor of biodiversity.In particular,the mechanism for payments for environmental services will need to be improved,and citizens

35、should be encouraged to help tackle conservation challenges through the French mechanism of Real Environmental Obligations(ORE).Gradually,biodiver-sity preservation or restoration actions should be seen not as additional costs but as investments in natural capital,essential for the sustainability of

36、 businesses.Those who fully commit to this approach should be able to benefit from opportunities in the national market,through public pro-curement,and internationally,supported by ambitious commercial and economic diplomacy.Finally,the development of a voluntary biodiversity credits market deserves

37、 careful analysis to avoid the pitfalls of the volun-tary carbon market.This implies anticipating both opposition and new vulnerabilities,arbitra-ting as far upstream as possible the conflicts of use that will arise from a scarcity of resources,and deploying an environmental police force whose missi

38、on will be both to raise awareness among private entities and to crack down as severely as possible on environmental crime.Such momentum cannot be sustained without the social acceptability of biodiversity protection measures.Reducing strains and promoting equity must guide public policies in this a

39、rea.This requires anticipating both opposition and new vulnerabilities,arbitrating usage conflicts arising from resource scarcity as early as possible,and deploying environmental law enforcement to both raise awareness among private players and to punish severely those who commit environmental crime

40、.12Axis 1Build a European framework for biodiversity that effec-tively allocates responsibilities between public and private stakeholders.RECOMMENDATION 1Establish scientifically based definitions of key biodiversity concepts,to build a common European framework and promote its adoption at an intern

41、ational level.Drawing on the most up-to-date scientific knowledge,define concepts of“good ecosystem status,”“positive biodi-versity,”“no net loss,”and“protected”and“restored”areas,at European level.This common European framework should be promoted at biodi-versity COPs with a view to have it adopted

42、 at the global level.It should also highlight climate-biodiversity synergies and incorporate the applica-tion of planetary boundaries at the territorial level.RECOMMENDATION 2Coordinate the distribution of responsibilities between the public and private sectors on an ecological territories level,by

43、placing greater emphasis on biodiversity in local planning instruments.By leveraging existing administrative bodies and ensuring the simplification of deci-sion-making processes and funding channels,extend the governance of public commons to include businesses and civil society.Summary of Recommenda

44、tionsBIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER13Axis 2Promote the integration of biodiversity in economic mo-dels.RECOMMENDATION 3Shift the value paradigm by introducing biodiversity as an econo-mic driver of prosperity and by focusing on innovation.As a factor of business resilience,biodivers

45、ity must attract greater and better-targeted public and private investments,particularly in actions that have positive joint impacts on climate,biodiversity,and the water cycle.Innovations enabled by biodiversity(nature-based solutions),aimed at alleviating strains on biodiversity or improving our u

46、nderstanding of it(environmen-tal DNA),as well as those that contribute,for instance,to restoring the water cycle,offer economic opportunities that should be encouraged.At the same time,the consideration of biodiversity in corporate governance must be strengthened,within the existing framework of th

47、e CSRD and the SBTN methodology.Given Frances leadership in this area,efforts should be made to ensure these standards become the global benchmark.RECOMMENDATION 4Assign financial value to commitments favoring biodiversity.Biodi-versity goes beyond simple management issues and is not limited to the

48、activities of companies alone;it requires an integrated,collective,and large-scale response through the expansion of payments for environ-mental services,Real Environmental Obligations(ORE),and the develop-ment of state-backed bank loans.As a lever for promoting biodiversity and a symbol of public a

49、uthorities leadership on the matter,public pro-curement should specifically include a biodiversity criterion.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE14Axis 3Strengthen the social acceptability of biodiversity conser-vation measures.RECOMMENDATION 5Promote fairness in biodiversity conservation measures to ensure their acc

50、eptability.Enhance the social acceptability of biodiversity pre-servation by first moving away from punitive environmental policies,and then experimenting with local redistribution mechanisms to balance the disparities arising from the scarcity of resources(land,water,etc.).RECOMMENDATION 6Raise awa

51、reness and mobilize stakeholders to preserve biodiversity.Environmental issues are too often seen as constraints on established rights or obstacles to unrestricted consumption.A shift in collective per-ceptions is necessary and cannot rely solely on scientific awareness.This shift should be based on

52、 the creation of new narratives and,at the same time,help the environmental police evolve towards educating users about the strains on biodiversity.*15Introduction“There is grandeur in this view of life,with its several powers,having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one;and that,whi

53、lst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity,from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been,and are being,evolved.”Darwin,On the Origin of Species,1859The environmental crisis,with its existential threat to all human activities,has n

54、ow become the paradigm within which public decisions are made.In particular,climate change,with its array of unpredictable and large-scale events,is now fully recognized as a challenge that must be col-lectively addressed by all governments,economic players,and citizens.International efforts,such as

55、 the Paris Agreement,provide an established institutional framework,while decisions are based on the conclusions of widely accepted scientific coalitions.Yet,there remains a blind spot in the understanding of environmen-tal policies:biodiversity.This may be due to the conceptual difficulty humans fa

56、ce in viewing themselves as just one component of a system of often invisible interdependencies.It may also be explained by metho-dological challenges arising from the inherent complexity of the living world.Perhaps the emphasis on the fight against climate change,which is more easily quantifiable,h

57、as contributed to this extinction of species being overlooked.Regardless,we are now paying the price for sidelining and downplaying the importance of biodiversity issues.However,the desire to protect remarkable elements of nature,particularly landscapes,emerged as early as the mid-19th century,in co

58、nnection with the rise of political ideas linked to the nation-state,which made landscapes INSTITUT MONTAIGNE161 Broswimmer F.,2010,“Une brve histoire de lextinction en masse des espces”,Agone.2 Article L.110-1 of the French Environment Code states that:“Biodiversity,or biological diversity,means th

59、e variability among living organisms from all sources,including terrestrial,marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part:this includes diversity within species,between species,of ecosystems and of interactions between living organisms.an essential part of n

60、ational heritage,and this was reflected in specific mea-sures.This“nature protection”policy,aimed at safeguarding landscapes,remarkable areas,or emblematic species threatened by the Industrial Revolution,forest and mining exploitation,and the expansion of the rail network,has led to numerous initiat

61、ives and undeniable successes:spe-cies such as beavers,birds of prey,cetaceans,and certain migratory birds(storks,pink flamingos,etc.)have benefited from measures protecting or limiting the exploitation of their habitat.In relation to this dynamic,the introduction of the notion of“biodiversity”is re

62、latively recent,as this technical term only appeared at the end of the 1980s.Coined by Walter Rosen in 1985 during the preparation of the National Forum on Biological Diversity,it was first used in a 1988 publi-cation to report on the conclusions of this summit.This more striking term was preferred

63、over“biological diversity,”coined by Thomas Lovejoy in 1980,and was adopted at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.1 In domestic law,it only appeared in legislative texts in the 21stcentury.In France,it wasnt until the enactment of Law 2016-1087 on August 8,2016,that this concept and its definition were de

64、finitively integrated into the Environ-mental Code.2Biodiversity is defined as the entire fabric of living organisms and is cha-racterized by the diversity of species(interspecific biodiversity),genetic diversity within species(or intraspecific biodiversity),and the diversity of ecosystems themselve

65、s.Biodiversity,which is deeply influenced by the interdependencies between species,must also be viewed as dynamic and constantly evolving.Source:Edited by Rodwell Christine and Vaillant David,Biodiversity:A Call for Decisive Action,HEC Alumni,Paris,2022.EcosystemDiversitySpeciesDiversityGeneticDiver

66、sityMarineFreshwaterTerrestrialGlaciersSeagrass MeadowsDesertsRivers and LakesTropical ForestsTemperate ForestsMangrovesPrairiesCoral ReefsAgricultural LandsMarineUrban AreasFigure 1:BiodiversityBIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER17Beyond its mere semantic significance,the emergence of t

67、he concept of biodiversity reflects the introduction of new ideas linked to the evo-lution of knowledge and the recognition of the limitations of the“tradi-tional”approach to nature conservation.The first major shift pertains to the extent of our lack of understanding with regards to the diversity o

68、f living things.By the mid-20th century,it was believed that a significant INSTITUT MONTAIGNE18portion of the inventory of living species had been recorded(leading to a declining interest in the field of natural history),it became clear that most of this inventory remained unfinished.Furthermore,the

69、 visible portion of this diversity represented only a tiny fraction of the living world,both in terms of diversity and the sheer quantity of living matter,as well as its role in the functioning of the biosphere.Transitioning from managing known entities to preserving an ensemble that remains largely

70、 unknown,reliant on ordinary or overlooked species,thus became necessary.The second major shift involves fully embracing the concepts of evolu-tionary biology.While the living entities present at any given moment deserve our attention,they must be viewed as expressions of an“evolu-tionary system”mad

71、e up of numerous interactions between these more or less transient entities.Therefore,it is this system and its evolutionary capacities that must be preserved,with particular care taken not to dis-rupt these essential and often imperceptible connections.The third major shift concerns the areas invol

72、ved.With the strategy of protected areas,only those territories were considered to be“high stakes”for biodiversity,often due to“remarkable biodiversity,”usually the pre-sence of notable species.The“ordinary”biodiversity of regions where most human activities take place was not seen as carrying such

73、impor-tance.3 This new understanding of biodiversity requires an acknowledg-ment that all areas are now considered“high stakes,”which can prove relatively challenging for public policy and action.Finally,as a corollary,this expansion of the areas of interest requires the involvement of all stakehold

74、ers.Although private initiatives for nature conservation have existed since the early 20th century,4 nature 3 The land sparing/land sharing conflict is still very much alive,as demonstrated by the“Nature needs Half”coalition.4 The Sept-Iles private reserve was created in 1912 to protect puffins in p

75、articular,or the Camargue zoological and botanical reserve in 1927.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER19protection in Europe has primarily been a matter of public policy.In contrast,the importance of biodiversity now requires all players whose activities impact the dynamics of life to re

76、flect on their role and,more importantly,to take action.However,while the concept of biodiversity has led to an evolution in our approach to and relationship with“nature,”the discussion surrounding its collapse,also known as the sixth mass extinction,5 remained largely confined to the scientific com

77、munity for a long time.This biodiversity crisis,with species disappearing at a rate 100 to 1,000 times the natu-ral extinction rate,6 only occasionally surfaced in public debate,usually during specific events,and mainly focused on the preservation partly guilt-driven,partly entertaining of distant,e

78、xotic species chosen prima-rily for their strong appeal and popularity.First and foremost,because the preservation of life is a necessary condition for human survival and the continued pursuit of human activities.The classic slogan“Protect the Planet”is misleading:what is truly at stake is the very

79、survival of the human species.Beyond providing essential raw materials,such as food,clean water,textile fibers,and active ingredients for many medications,biodiversity plays a crucial role in regulating envi-ronmental processes that make Earth habitable,such as climate regula-tion and the mitigation

80、 of extreme events.It thus directly contributes to maintaining Earths viability for human life.5“Mass extinctions must be reinterpreted,by four criteria,as ruptures rather than culminations of ongoing processes.They are more frequent,more rapid,more profound(in numbers of species and environments el

81、iminated),and more varied in effects than in normal times.”Jay Gould S.,1985,“The Flamingos Smile:Reflections in Natural History”,WW Norton quoted by Broswimmer F.,2010,“Une brve histoire de lextinction en masse des espces”,Agone.6 69%of species disappeared between 1970 and 2018,according to the WWF

82、s Living Planet Index.For the record,the natural extinction rate is equivalent to one species per million per year.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE20Nature also provides crucial ecosystem services with significant econo-mic,social,and cultural value.The economic approach to valuing nature and its services is not

83、aimed at commodifying it but rather at establishing a common unit of measurement.Nonetheless,it is worth noting that the OECD estimates these services to be valued at between$125 trillion and$140trillion,7 which is roughly one and a half times the global GDP.Addi-tionally,the poorest populations are

84、 particularly dependent on ecosys-tem services and other non-market goods.8 The economic stakes alone fully justify the integration of biodiversity into the key decision-making processes of both private and public players.The preservation of biodiversity cannot be reduced to a secondary objec-tive,b

85、y which various stakeholders would seek to ease their conscience.It holds an existential significance that should not be underestimated.Secondly,the preservation of biodiversity presents an opportunity to increase the resilience of institutions and societies.The common approach to environmental issu

86、es often involves viewing humans as external to a system on which they primarily have a harmful impact.In practice,this mindset leads to regulating and restricting human activi-ties,focusing on limiting usage and enjoyment,some economic agents 7 OECD,Financing Biodiversity:Action for the Economy and

87、 Business,Summary and Synthesis Prepared for the French G7 Presidency and the G7 Environment Ministers Meeting,May 5-6,2019.https:/www.oecd.org/environment/resources/biodiversity/Resume-et-Synthese-Rapport-G7-financer-la-biodiversite-agir-pour-leconomie-et%20les-entreprises.pdf.The economic valuatio

88、n of these services takes into account adjusted market value(crops,livestock,and forests),production function estimation(maintenance of beneficial species,agricultural production,and flood control),revealed preferences(water quality,tranquility,recreation,and amenities),stated preferences(water and

89、air quality,species conservation,non-use values),and subjective well-being(air and water quality,species conservation based on available indicators).The valuation of ecosystem services remains a“complex undertaking at the edge of knowledge.”This exercise provides a general idea,with the OECD questio

90、ning“whether the valuations found in the literature adequately reflect the importance of ecosystem assets and biodiversity.”In:OECD(2019),Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Environment:Recent Developments and Policy Use,OECD Publishing.https:/doi.org/10.1787/9789264300453-en.8 TEEB,2010,“The Economics of

91、 Ecosystems and Biodiversity:Mainstreaming the economics of nature,”a synthesis of the approach,conclusions and recommendations,https:/www.teebweb.org.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER21consider this a degrowth approach.While this damage-focused approach can be valuable for educational

92、 purposes,it is both limiting and unrea-listic in addressing environmental challenges,which require everyone to be involved and take responsibility.On one hand,biodiversity represents an invaluable reservoir of scientific wealth,with hundreds of thousands of species yet to be discovered.The oceans r

93、emain largely uncharted,and roughly one million insect species in tropical rainforests are still unknown.9 The molecules and opportuni-ties they hold are therefore only imperfectly understood.On the other hand,biomimicry has often been a driver of innovation,and developing new,more resilient modes o

94、f production and organization is essential for adapting to climate change.Nature-based solutions,which leverage natural resources to preserve,enhance,and even restore ecosystems,are a prime example.Companies that fail to incorporate biodiversity-related risks and dependencies into their analysis,or

95、to recognize the potential opportunities,risk stagnation and detrimental inertia.Thirdly,despite a certain retreat from environmental commitments,biodiversity remains a major concern for civil society.Aligning short-term economic solutions with long-term commitment to environmental preservation is a

96、 core concern.This increasing awareness must be more clearly understood by businesses.Firstly,because companies,including SMEs,are seen as having both a negative impact on biodiversity and the capacity for effective action.Secondly,because the consumer behaviors of informed citizens will increasingl

97、y influence companies production processes,favoring those with better environmental practices.9 Musum national dhistoire naturelle,March 2022,“Les forts tropicales:leur rle pour le climat et la biodiversit”.https:/www.mnhn.fr/fr/les-forets-tropicales-leur-role-pour-le-climat-et-la-biodiversite.INSTI

98、TUT MONTAIGNE22Thirdly,because employee expectations are changing,making the adop-tion of a positive stance on biodiversity an asset for the employer-brand to attract and retain talent within the company.Finally,because biodiversity is becoming a criterion for attracting capi-tal.Driven by new regul

99、ationsfrom the European taxonomy and the CSRD directive,to the SFDR and Article 29 of the French Energy-Climate Law investors are increasingly concerned by this issue,viewing it as a key component of business resilience.10,11,12With this in mind,this report aims to achieve three objectives:Mobilize

100、scientific knowledge on biodiversity loss and the essential services it provides to humanity,for the benefit of both decision-ma-kers and the general public.Promote actions already undertaken by companies most committed to preserving and restoring ecosystems,fostering a sense of shared responsibilit

101、y and mutual incentives.Formulate recommendations to accelerate the necessary transitions by improving communication between public,private and civic enti-ties,particularly at the local level.To this end,the report was developed using a collaborative approach.Over 100interviews were conducted with b

102、usiness leaders,environmen-tal or CSR managers,entrepreneurs,engineers,scientists,insurers,public officials,civil servants,national and local representatives,and civil society stakeholders.These interviews helped identify the challenges faced by field players,sector by sector,as well as the solution

103、s already imple-mented within their organizations.10 The Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive,which came into force on 1 January 2024,sets new standards for non-financial reporting at European level.11 The Sustainable Finance Disclosure Regulation,which came into force in 2021,is one aspect

104、of the sustainable finance regulations.12 This article defines the new reporting obligations for investors managing more than 500 million in the areas of climate and biodiversity.They must explain the strategy for taking these risks into account in their portfolio.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS

105、OF A FEATHER23Thus,the first part of this study reviews the scientific findings on the bio-diversity crisis.The second part focuses on the underestimation of bio-diversity dependence in economic analysis,partly due to the difficulty inherent to reducing living systems to a single metric.The third pa

106、rt highlights both the increasing engagement of economic players,facili-tated by shared action frameworks,as well as the opportunities that bio-diversity provides.Finally,the last part seeks to define the role of public authorities within this specific context.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE241 Biodiversity Is U

107、nder Threat1.1.FRAMEWORK 1:THE FIVE PRESSURES ON BIODIVERSITYNature is declining globally at rates unprecedented in human history and the rate of species extinctions is accelerating,with grave impacts on people around the world now likely.”The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversit

108、y and Ecosystem Services(IPBES),May 2019To quote Franz Broswimmer,“extinction is the ultimate fate of every spe-cies.However,the current rate of extinction at least100 species every day is unprecedented.13 These figures are all the more staggering when you consider that random extinctions have occur

109、red at a rate of one species disappearing every five years over the past 500million years.14 The extinction of a species may be due to its population or isolated sub-populations falling below a minimum threshold,which prevents the genetic diversity necessary for its survival and adaptability(resista

110、nce to pathogens,predators,environmental changes,etc.).Of the 8 million known species on Earth,plus up to 12 million species that have not yet been described,the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services(IPBES)the biodiversity equivalent of the IPCC for climate

111、 estimates that one million species are at risk of extinction in the coming decades.The WWF,through its Living 13 This article defines the new reporting obligations for investors managing more than 500 million in the areas of climate and biodiversity.They must explain the strategy for taking these r

112、isks into account in their portfolio.14 Ibid.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER25Planet Index,estimates that two-thirds of vertebrate species and 83%of freshwater species have disappeared since 1970.1515 Ayres E.,September-October 1998,“The Fastest Mass Extinction in Earths History”,Wor

113、ldwatch,No.11 quoted by Broswimmer F.,20,“Une brve histoire de lextinction en masse des espces”,Agone.Figure 2:Biodiversity LossSource:https:/uicn.fr/liste-rouge-mondiale/.0%10%20%30%40%50%0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%Of 157,190 species studied in 2023(i.e.,2,000 species more than in 202244,016t

114、hreatened species(28%of speciesstudied)41%ofamphibians12%of birds26%ofmammals37%of sharksand rays36%of reef-buildingcorals34%of conifersEndangered species:INSTITUT MONTAIGNE26Faced with a loss of biodiversity that is both individually felt and scientifi-cally observed,the research community has take

115、n an interest in the rea-sons for these declines in abundance,but also in the richness and health of ecosystems.The IPBES has identified five major issues,all man-made.a.Changes in Use of Land and SeaThe first pressure,the change in use of land and sea(i.e.,changes in occu-pation,land use and resour

116、ces),often leads to the artificialization,reduc-tion and fragmentation of natural habitats.This change in use affects all natural environments.According to the 2019 IPBES report,75%of Earths surface has been significantly altered,66%of the oceans are experiencing increasingly significant cumulative

117、impacts,and 85%of wetland areas have disappeared.16 More than a third of Earths surface is used for crops and livestock,with the agri-food system responsible for 80%of land-use changes alone.17This change in land use affects all terrestrial ecosystems(forests,meadows,peat bogs,etc.)and has accompani

118、ed the development of human socie-ties,particularly with a view to meeting their food requirements.For exa-mple,the clearing of land for agricultural purposes,which coincided with population growth,began as early as the Bronze Age(between the 4th and 2nd millennia BC)and led to a 46%reduction in for

119、est area.Forest 16 IPBES(Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services)is an international group of biodiversity experts established in 1992 by 92 governments to advance the science of biodiversity and ecosystem services and to inform public policy.The 2019 report

120、provides a comprehensive analysis of how biodiversity has changed over the past 50 years and the consequences that such changes may have for human societies.IPBES,(2019),Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity a

121、nd Ecosystem Services.E.S.Brondizio,J.Settele,S.Daz,and H.T.Ngo(editors).The executive summary of this report is available at:https:/ Vonlanthen M.,2023,“La biodiversit,lautre crise cologique”,Savoir Suisse,Presses Polytechniques et Universitaires.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER27cov

122、er remained fairly stable for two millennia before deforestation acce-lerated in the 1980s.The absence of environmental regulations combined with the rise in power of multinationals exporting agricultural products were factors in explaining this intensification of deforestation.18 Today,forests cove

123、r around 30%of Earths surface and deforestation remains closely linked to the pace of demographic transition.However,according to NASA,the global vegetated area has increased by 5%since 2010,mainly due to very proactive policies in India and China.But while this is a sign that the trend can be rever

124、sed relatively quickly,it must be remembered that the biodiversity of primary forests,which are currently experiencing the greatest pressure,is much greater than that of reforested forests.In addition to deforestation,another issue is the degradation of forest environments.It is currently estimated

125、that 20%of remaining forests are degraded,i.e.,they have been subjected to human disturbance linked to occasional logging,fire,small-scale farming and unsuitable extractive methods.According to a report presented to the 16th session of the UN Human Rights Council in 2011,more than 200,000square kilo

126、meters of arable land are artificialized every year,while 100,000square kilometers of arable land disappear due to soil decay and exhaustion.19Finally,maritime and coastal areas are also affected.40%of coastal ocean shelves,where many species feed and reproduce,are severely damaged:offshore,due to f

127、ishing methods such as deep-water trawling,and in coastal wetlands,due to the artificialization of these areas.18 Gilbert P.,2020,“Gomimtisme,rguler le changement climatique grce la nature”,Les Petits Matins.19 De Schutter O.,2011,“Agroecology and the right to food”,Report presented to the 16th sess

128、ion of the UN Human Rights Council.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE28In addition to the disappearance in surface,the fragmentation,mainly due to the development of infrastructure,particularly roads,leads to a loss of connectivity between habitats,which in effect become separate islands.In the short term,this frag

129、mentation hampers access to food and/or breeding sites.A 2020 meta-study also concluded that more than 200 million animals(birds and mammals)were the direct victims of collisions every year in Europe.20 In the medium and long term,the isolation of populations limits metapopulation exchanges,21 which

130、 could lead to their disappearance.As well as having a significant impact on the ability of species to evolve and maintain sufficient genetic diversity,land-use change also contri-butes to the degradation of the services provided by these ecosystems(see below),which have become less functional as a

131、result.According to a 2014 study conducted under Costanzas direction,between 1997 and 2011,as a result of land use change and the subsequent degradation of ecosystem services,22 the world lost between 4,000 and 20,000 billion dollars per year in the value of these services.2320 Grilo C.,Koroleva E.,

132、Andrik R.,Bl M.,Gonzlez-Surez M.,(August 2020),“Roadkill risk and population vulnerability in European birds and mammals”,Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment,vol.18,no.6.https:/ In ecology,a population is a group of individuals of the same species living at a given time in a given area.A metapo

133、pulation is therefore built around the interactions between populations of the same species living in different given areas.22 Costanzaa R.,de Groot R.,Sutton P.,van der Ploeg S.,J.Andersond S.,Kubiszewskia I.,Farbere,S,Turner R.K.,may 2014,“Changes in the global value of ecosystem services”,Global

134、Environmental Change,Vol 26,Elsevier(Ed).https:/ More specifically,between 1997 and 2011,changes in land cover generated a loss in the value of ecosystem services estimated at between 4,000 and 20,000 billion dollars.To this must be added between 6,000 and 11,000 billion dollars per year in losses o

135、f ecosystem services due to land degradation.OECD,Financer la biodiversit,agir pour lconomie et les entreprises,rsum et synthse prpars pour la Prsidence franaise du G7 et la runion of G7 Environment Ministers on 5 and 6 May 2019.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER29b.PollutionThe second

136、pressure on biodiversity comes from pollution.This issue is the direct and exclusive consequence of human activities and affects all environments.A few examples of chemical pollution of aquatic environ-ments,soils,air,marine environments and living organisms,will be pre-sented,and the consequences o

137、f noise and light pollution on biodiversity will also be briefly discussed.Nitrogen and phosphorus pollution,leading to eutrophication,is a prime example.An excess of nutrients from fertilizers or agricultural soil lea-ching,but also from wastewater,leads to a proliferation of aquatic plants(algae,f

138、or example)or cyanobacteria.24 The decomposition of these algal blooms degrades water quality,notably by reducing the amount of oxy-gen available and producing sulfurous gases.This leads to the creation of“dead zones,”such as the Velje Fjord in Denmark,which has been consi-dered as such since April

139、2024.25 Cyanobacteria can also produce certain toxins that are dangerous to human and animal health.Green algae,the result of this anthropogenic over-fertilization of the environment,there-fore has a major impact on ecosystems and health.Excessive agricultural inputs also have a major impact on soil

140、s.The mas-sive use of pesticides,a corollary of industrial production and mono-cultures,is drastically reducing the living population(organisms and micro-organisms)in the soil.While biodiversity and crop rotation help to break the reproduction cycles of pests,the use of pesticides hampers natural re

141、gulatory functions,increasing the use of inputs in a vicious cir-cle.In addition to reducing soil fertility,toxic substances can contami-nate water resources and accumulate throughout the food chain.Rachel 24 Unicellular or filamentous micro-organisms capable of photosynthesis.Definition taken from

142、the Encyclopedia Universalis.https:/www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/cyanobacteries-cyanophycees-algues-bleues/.25 17%of the surface area of mainland Denmark is affected by this deoxygenation of the water,Danish Environment Agency.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE30Carson,in her 1962 book Silent Spring,was one of t

143、he first to highlight the consequences of pesticide use on biodiversity and human health.DDT,an organochlorine insecticide,played a significant role in the mas-sive decline of the peregrine falcon in North America between 1950 and 1960.At the top of the food chain,these birds of prey,were contaminat

144、ed by their prey,accumulated large quantities of DDT,which interfered with their ability to fix the calcium essential for the synthesis of their eggshells.As a result,the females laid eggs with thinner shells that could not wit-hstand the weight of the parents during incubation.26In addition,acidifi

145、cation phenomena(a decrease in the pH of an environ-ment),with variable causes,are multiplying and affecting a large number of environments and species,particularly oceanic ones.Ocean acidifica-tion is caused by an increase in the level of CO in the water and has a significant impact on the construc

146、tion and maintenance of the skeletons and calcareous shells of marine animals.27 Once in contact with water,the CO molecule is transformed into carbonic acid.Slower growth,thinner shells,reduced skeletal density these are the consequences of ocean acidification.Taken to extremes,like white vinegar o

147、n limestone,this phe-nomenon can even lead to the dissolution of shells and other calcareous structures.In addition to its direct impact in terms of the decline or disappearance of a number of species,this acidification threatens marine biodiversity by destabilizing food chains.This disruption of ma

148、rine ecolo-gical functions will have an impact on the food security of human com-munities.Finally,this decline in marine biodiversity is having an impact on climate change.Living organisms capture CO when they build up their shells,which is then stored in anthozoans such as corals or sea ane-mones,o

149、r during the sedimentation of shells.However,when the shells 26 In addition to Rachel Carsons Silent Spring,Alans travelogue is a good read.Tennant,In Flight,published by Gallmeister.He follows the migration of peregrine falcons from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Circle,initially as part of a sci

150、entific program.27 Once in contact with water,the CO2 molecule transforms and reduces the content of carbonate,which is essential for building the skeletal structures and shells of corals,mollusks and certain plankton.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER31dissolve,they release the CO that

151、 they had captured,meaning that the oceans no longer play their role as carbon sinksFurthermore,the release of various molecules into the atmosphere leads to the acidification of rain and its deposition on the ground.Sulphur dioxide,mainly produced by the combustion of fossil fuels,nitrogen oxides,p

152、roduced by high-temperature industrial combustion processes,and ammonia,produced by livestock farming,are the main culprits.Rain-fall acidifies aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems,reducing the capacity of plants to photosynthesize and of soils to absorb mineral salts.Sulphur dioxide also plays a role

153、 in the formation of fine particles,reducing air qua-lity.Nitrogen oxides contribute to smog,the eutrophication of waterways and the formation of ground-level ozone.This powerful greenhouse gas accelerates climate change and also degrades air quality.Ammonia also contributes to the aforementioned eu

154、trophication.The ecotoxicity of substances reflects the overall harm and imbalances caused to ecosystems by the presence of heavy metals,pesticides such as neonicotinoids,industrial chemicals,and persistent organic pollutants(POPs),which include PFAS.28 Often,these pollutants“degrade,”but POPs and P

155、FAS,for example,persist in the environment,frequently combining low biodegradability with a high capacity for bioaccumulation.They are also capable of long-range dispersion in the environment.29 The pheno-menon of bioaccumulation is a major issue for biodiversity.A study carried out by the Universit

156、y of Aarhus on killer whales looked at concentrations of PCBs,30 chemical compounds used as cooling fluids,lubricants for 28 PFAS:Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances.These are a family of synthetic chemical compounds containing carbon and fluorine molecules.These substances are chemically very stable

157、,Polyfluoroalkyl.This is a family of synthetic chemical compounds containing fluorine and carbon.These substances,which are chemically very stable,have the following properties hydrophobic and lipophobic,which explains their common use in industrial products(clothing,cosmetics,kitchen utensils,etc.)

158、from the 1940s onwards.The Stockholm Convention on POPs,adopted on 22 May 2001,does not classify all PFAS as POP.29 Bioaccumulation(progressive accumulation of toxic substances in organisms)and long distribution in the environment are the criteria used by the Convention.Stockholm Convention on POPs.

159、INSTITUT MONTAIGNE32electrical equipment or coatings for ships that were either banned or par-ticularly regulated in the 1970s and 1980s.Even years later,PCBs are still found in the bodies of killer whales.Above a certain threshold,they affect their fertility.In some individuals,levels of up to 25ti

160、mes this threshold have been found,with females contaminating their calves during gesta-tion and suckling.31 This study highlights the fact that secondary consu-mers,at the top of the food chain,including humans,accumulate very high levels of POPs,with risks for their health,their reproductive capac

161、ity and ultimately the survival of the species.The long-term persistence of these substances in the environment is also a cause for concern.Finally,disturbances such as light and noise pollution can disrupt the natural functioning of ecosystems.The circadian cycle is a major marker for species as it

162、 regulates physiological functions such as sleep,feeding,and reproduction.Behaviors can also be altered:prey hidden in darkness become vulnerable in environments that are illuminated most of the time.Everyone has observed the attraction artificial light has on insects.An increased mortality rate of

163、this essential link in the food chain and pollination process has significant consequences,including for humans.Light pollution also directly impacts orientation,and therefore the survi-val of species.For example,young turtles struggle to reach the sea when beaches are illuminated.Artificial lightin

164、g can divert migratory birds from their paths or lead to collisions with buildings.In 2017,nearly 400 migratory birds were blinded by the lights on the tal-lest building in the city of Galveston,Texas,and died after colliding with it.Since then,a campaign called“Lights Out Texas”has been promoting a

165、 reduction or switching off of building lights during migration periods.30 PCB:polychlorinated biphenyls.This is a group of synthetic chemical compounds that have a similar structure but different degrees of chlorination.They are insoluble in water,colorless or yellowish,with a strong aromatic odor,

166、highly stable to heat and inert chemically,making them less sensitive to acids,bases and oxidants.31 Desforges J-P.,et al.,“Predicting global killer whale population collapse from PCB pollution.”,Science,no.361.https:/www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aat1953.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF

167、A FEATHER33As for plants,their growth and/or reproduction often depend on natural light cycles and can be affected by light pollution.A similar argument could be made as to the consequences of noise pollu-tion on marine species.Physiological reactions have been observed in the form of delayed growth

168、,increased stress levels and respiration rates,reac-tions due to acoustic masking resulting in an inability to communicate with conspecifics,disorientation of individuals and an inability to locate prey.Behavioral reactions,such as changes in migratory trajectory and temporary physiological damage(r

169、educed hearing capacity,for example)or permanent damage,generally resulting in the death of the animal,have also been observed.Therefore pollution,which affects all ecosystems,has an impact on bio-diversity,much of which has yet to be studied further.c.Overexploited ResourcesThe third pressure comes

170、 from the overexploitation of resources,which destroys certain ecosystems and/or leads to competition between humans and other living organisms for access to resources.The concept of resource exploitation,which reflects the direct exploitation of living organisms,encompasses the harvesting of animal

171、s,plants and other organisms(e.g.,collecting,logging,hunting and fishing).Living resources are,by definition,renewable,but this renewal depends on harmonious exploitation thresholds that must not be exceeded.The exploitation of fisheries resources is a good illustration of this phe-nomenon.Worldwide

172、,93%of fish stocks are fully exploited and 35%are overexploited.3232 IPBES,2019,“Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services”,E.S.Brondizio,J.Settele,S.Daz and H.T.Ngo(editors).INSTITUT MONTAI

173、GNE34As early as 1955,in order to provide governments with a framework for sustainable fisheries management,the United Nations conceptualized“maximum sustainable yield(MSY).In the context of the 1982 Montego Bay Convention,MSY is defined as“the greatest quantity of biomass that can be extracted from

174、 a fish stock,on average and over the long term,under given environmental conditions and for given exploitation cha-racteristics(fishing gear and mesh sizes).The Convention states that governments have the right and duty to ensure“MSY management”of the fishery resources in their exclusive economic z

175、ones.33 However,the latest report on the state of world fisheries and aquaculture produced by Figure 3:Trends in World Fish Stocks (1974-2019)19741980199020002010201925%50%75%100%0Source:FAO.2022.Summary of The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022.Towards a blue transformation.Rome,FAO.Over

176、exploitedOperated at maximum sustainableUnderexploitedPercentageSustainableUnsustainableBIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER35the FAO in 2022 shows that the proportion of fish stocks exploited at a biologically sustainable level fell between 1974 and 2019(-35 points)to 64.6%of stocks.Of t

177、hese,57.3%of stocks are exploited at a maximum sustainable level,with a disparity between species:2/3 of the most com-monly landed species are managed in a biologically sustainable way,which is an improvement from 2017.Recovery of overexploited stocks is made possible by scientific assess-ment and a

178、n effective regulatory framework promoting sustainable management based on ecosystems and incorporating the concept of maximum sustainable yield,making it possible to ensure production and improve food safety and quality,illustrating the co-benefits of preserving biodiversity.Compliance with quotas

179、is enshrined in the United Nations Conven-tion on the Law of the Sea and in the implementation plan for the 2002 Johannesburg Summit.However,the scale of fraud still limits the“blue transformation”that the FAO is calling for.A study showed that,in 2001,China declared only 10%of what it caught in the

180、 international oceans.34 Illegal,unreported and unregulated(IUU)fishing is a major threat to marine ecosystems.33 Gascuel D.,2019,“Overexploitation and sustainable fishing:what is at stake now and in the future?”,Scientific file of the Ocean and Climate Platform.https:/ocean-climate.org/wp-content/u

181、ploads/2020/01/8.-Surexploitation-et-p%C3%AAche-durable-Fiches-S-2019.pdf.34 Watson R.,Pang L.,et Pauly D.,2001,“The Marine Fisheries of China:Development and Reported Catches”,Faculty Research and Publications.R,Fisheries Centre,University of British Columbia.https:/open.library.ubc.ca/soa/cIRcle/c

182、ollections/facultyresearchandpublications/52383/items/1.0348129.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE36According to the IPBES,illegal fishing accounts for 30%of the worlds total catches.The example of Chinese industrial fishing is just one aspect of this practice:small-scale fishing,particularly on the coasts of West

183、Africa,Asia and in the waters of French Guyana,is also affected.The consequences of IUU fishing are particularly damaging and can thwart protective measures(quotas,fishing bans,marine protected areas,etc.).It also has a paradoxical economic and social impact on local communities,who see their resour

184、ces and food security diminish,especially conside-ring the fact that fishing is the main source of animal protein for more than three billion human beings and that 10%of the worlds population depends exclusively on the oceans for their livelihood.Figure 4:Illegal,Unreported and Unregulated(IUU)Fishi

185、ng WorldwideSource:Centre dtudes stratgiques de la Marine,“La pche illgale,non dclare et non rglemente”,Brve Marine,no.242,may 2021.MexicoLibyaSudanIndiaNyamnarCambodiaVietnamIndonesiaPhilippinesJapanTaiwanChinaRussiaSomaliaTanzaniaCameroonLiberiaSierra LoneNorthPacifc OceanIndianOceanNorthPacifc Oc

186、eanNorthAtlantic OceanArcticOceanSouth Pacifc OceanSouthAtlantic OceanGulfof Guinea Main countries of origin by sizeMain fleet areas of vessels involved in IUU fishingBIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER37In addition,the annual loss of revenue generated by IUU fishing for legal fishing is

187、 estimated at between 26 and 50 billion dollars Thus,while com-bating IUU(Illegal,Unreported,and Unregulated)fishing is crucial for the preservation of marine biodiversity,it is equally crucial for economic and food security.In addition,the fight against the overexploitation of wild species can be m

188、ade more difficult by what French researcher Franck Courchamp calls the“anthropogenic Allee effect.35 Contrary to what one might expect,declaring a species to be rare does not guarantee that people will take action to preserve it.On the contrary,the irrational attraction of rarity“could accelerate t

189、he desire to capture,collect,appropriate and observe it,thereby hastening its extinction.36The concept of Earth Overshoot Day can be useful for visualizing resource consumption in relation to the population.The dynamics of resource renewal are essentially considered via the reconstitution and produc

190、tion of resources per ecosystem surface area and the capture of CO emitted.Established by the Global Footprint Network,this tool refers to the day of the year on which humanity would have used all the resources that the planet is capable of regenerating in one year.There is some criticism of this to

191、ol,which should be seen as an educational tool for the general public,based on aggregations by national surface area,modelling assumptions and generalizations that only partially illustrate a complex and multifac-torial reality.It is nevertheless a good way of raising awareness about the disparate p

192、ressures exerted by human societies on Earths resources.35 The Allee effect was described in 1931 and bears the name of its author:Warder Clyde Allee.The Allee effect in a population is characterized by a decrease in its growth rate as the population size decreases,and vice versa.This principle cont

193、radicts the commonly held belief that smaller population sizes should lead to higher growth rates due to reduced competition within the species.36 Courchamp F.,“Comprendre les activits humaines sur la biodiversit,Portrait de chercheur”,septembre 2022,Universit de Paris Saclay.https:/www.universite-p

194、aris-saclay.fr/actualites/franck-courchamp-comprendre-limpact-des-activites-humaines-sur-la-biodiversite.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE38As the graph below shows,the Earth Overshoot Day has moved steadily forward,from 25 December in 1971 to 2 August last year.DecemberNovemberOctoberSeptemberAugustJulyFigure 5:T

195、he Progression of Earth Overshoot Day Over the Years(Proportion of the year remaining after Earth Overshoot Day from 1971 to 2023 37)1971198019902000201020202023Source:https:/ 1971Oct.9 1995Aug.2 202337 Earth Overshoot Day:date on which humanity is supposed to have consumed all the renewable resourc

196、es that the planet is capable of regenerating in one year.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER39d.Invasive Alien SpeciesThe fourth pressure is exerted by invasive alien species(IAS),which are organisms introduced,intentionally or unintentionally,outside their natu-ral habitat.The European

197、 Councils strategy on IAS gives the following definition:“a species,subspecies or lower taxon introduced outside its natural past or present distribution.More specifically,the European regu-lation defines an IAS as“an alien species whose introduction or spread has been found to threaten or adversely

198、 impact upon biodiversity and related ecosystem services,”particularly in the absence of predators or natural competitors or because of its very rapid reproductive capacity.The movement of species is a natural phenomenon.For example,it seems highly likely that the first snails to settle in Hawaii we

199、re transported by seabirds.38 Similarly,fish can be found in high-altitude lakes,transported by climatic phenomena known as“fish showers.”However,globaliza-tion has greatly accelerated the movement of species from one part of the planet to another,taking them across natural barriers.World trade,defo

200、restation,shipping(with its 12 million tons of seawater of all origins dumped in ports every year by supertankers),aquaculture,ornamen-tation and the deliberate release of household pets provide numerous opportunities for new species to settle outside their native environment,with serious consequenc

201、es for ecosystems and biodiversity.IAS can compete with native species for resources in environments that are already under pressure.One example is the round goby,which poses a threat to freshwater fish,with which it competes for food resources and breeding grounds.Introduced to North America,probab

202、ly via ballast water,and initially originating from the Azov,Caspian and Black Seas,it has developed widely there and is the subject of a specific management policy.38 For a fuller development of the subject see van Dooren T.,Gabriel Cohen A.,2018,“The Worlds of Snails.”https:/hal.science/hal-040461

203、31/document.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE40Furthermore,invasive alien species can introduce a new form of preda-tion to which local species are not adapted,as seen with the Asian hornet preying on bees and other flying insects.IAS can also modify habitats,as is the case with Japanese knotweed.Introduced to Eur

204、ope for ornamen-tal purposes in the 19th century,this plant forms dense colonies,usually monospecific,which choke out the local flora.Although it is still largely unknown to the general public and remains underestimated,this pressure is gaining attention.In autumn 2023,39 and with the aim of synthes

205、izing scientific knowledge on this pressure,the IPBES produced a report on the subject from which the following key figures can be drawn:200 new exotic species are recorded each year.More than 37,000 exotic species have been introduced by human activity.3,500 of these species have documented negativ

206、e impacts,with inva-siveness varying from taxon to taxon.These effects are particularly detrimental to island regions.According to the IUCN,“invasive alien species are involved in 60%of documented glo-bal species extinctions,and 90%of these extinctions occur on islands,40 as noted in a 2018 study.41

207、 The introduction of the brown rat on the island of Lundy has had devastating consequences for seabird colonies,and in particular for English Shearwaters and Puffins.After the collapse of the colonies(of 3,500 pairs of English Shearwater in 1939,only 297 pairs 39 IPBES,2023,Summary for Policymak ers

208、 of the Thematic Assessment Report on Invasive Alien Species and their Control of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.Roy H.E.,Pauchard A.,Stoett P.,Renard Truong T.,Bacher S.,Galil B.S.,Hulme P.E.,Ikeda T.,Sankaran K.V.,McGeoch M.A.,Meyerson L.A.,Nue

209、z M.A.,Ordonez A.,Rahlao S.J.,Schwindt E.,Seebens H.,Sheppard A.W.,and Vandvik V.(eds.).IPBES secretariat.https:/ UICN.https:/uicn.fr/ipbes-premiere-evaluation-mondiale-sur-les-especes-exotiques-envahissantes/.41 Leclerc C.,Courchamp F.et Bellard C.,(2018),“Insular threat associations within taxa wo

210、rldwide”,Scientific Reports,8.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER41remained in 2001),a brown rat eradication campaign was carried out.The campaign was a success,as no rodents have been seen in the area since 2006 and the bird colonies have since recovered.42While the consequences of IAS

211、on ecosystems are increasingly well docu-mented from a scientific point of view,the economic consequences are still barely taken into account in analyses.However,a study published in Nature in 2021 estimated the economic cost of invasive species at 1,288 billion dollars over the last fifty years,and

212、 rising rapidly by a factor of three per decade.43 The IUCN estimates the global economic cost of inva-sive species at more than 390 billion in 2019,focusing on the damage they cause.The main sectors affected are agriculture,forestry,health and aquatic resources.44e.Climate Change,an OverpressureCli

213、mate change and biodiversity loss are two interconnected phenomena that influence each other.Climate change accentuates the loss of biodi-versity by rapidly altering ecosystems and the distribution of species.At the same time,the loss of biodiversity accelerates the effects of climate change:carbon

214、sinks such as oceans,peat bogs,grasslands and forests,for example,are degraded and absorb less and less CO.The concept of feedback loops,which will be discussed later,is essential to understan-ding the fundamental reciprocity of these two crises.42 Barkham P.,May 28,2019,“Seabirds treble on Lundy af

215、ter island is declared rat-free”,The Guardian.https:/ Diagne C,Leroy B,Vaissire A-C.et al,2021,“High and rising economic costs of biological invasions worldwide”,Nature,no.592,quoted by Vonlanthen M.,(2023),“La biodiversit,lautre crise cologique”,Savoir Suisse,Presses Polytechniques et Universitaire

216、s Romandes.44 IUCN,September 2021,“The economic costs of invasive alien species:a burden on society”.https:/especes-envahissantes-outremer.fr/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/fiche_synthese_couts_economiques_eee.pdf.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE42Indeed,while biodiversity loss has so far been predominantly caused by

217、 the first four pressures,with measurable consequences for which we have some historical perspective,we are now shifting into a state of“super-cri-sis”related to the fifth pressure climate change,sometimes referred to as an“overpressure.”This amplifies the other four pressures and compli-cates our c

218、apacity for modeling.A study published at the end of April 2024 concludes that land use changes have been the primary driver of biodiversity decline during the 20th century.However,climate change is playing an increasingly significant role and,according to projections,could become the leading cause

219、of biodiversity loss globally.45Climate change directly results in the destruction and fragmentation of habitats,as well as the depletion of food sources that species rely on due to heatwaves and droughts,which increase the risk of wildfires and lead to an expansion of arid and semi-arid lands by an

220、 estimated 5 to 8%by 2080,according to the IPCCs 4th report.46It is also the cause of an increase in extreme weather events(storms,rain,floods),which can lead to the disappearance of species:in Costa Rica,the disappearance of the golden toad in the 1990s was directly linked to flooding.Australian bu

221、shfires have led to the death or displacement of 3billion animals in 2019-2020.47Climate change is also forcing species to migrate,either because their food or water resources are becoming more scarce,or because they are forced to migrate northwards or to higher altitudes to find living 45 M.Pereira

222、 H.et al.,April 2024,“Global trends and scenarios for terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem services from 1900 to 2050”,Science,no.384.https:/www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn3441.46 WWF,2015,“Impact of climate change on species”.https:/www.wwf.fr/sites/default/files/doc-2017-07/151110_rappor

223、t_les_impacts_du_changement_climatique_sur_les_especes.pdf.47 WWF,2020,“Impacts of the unprecedented 2019-2020 bushfires on Australian animals”.https:/assets.wwf.org.au/image/upload/v1/website-media/resources/WWF_Impacts-of-the-unprecedented-2019-2020-bushfires-on-Australian-animals.BIODIVERSITY AND

224、 THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER43conditions that are conducive to their survival.According to the French Musum national dhistoire naturelle,48 birds have shifted 90km nor-thwards over the past twenty years,while mountain forests have moved 30 meters upward in elevation over the last fifty years.Thes

225、e migrations lead to disease and imbalances in the food chain,with migratory species becoming invasive species for the new ecosystems in which they settle.In addition,these movements increase competition between species,which is also a vector for extinction in itself,and the transmission of zoo-nose

226、s.Seasonal disturbances also have an impact on vegetation recovery periods(budding,flowering,fruit ripening)and the synchrony of cycles between animal and plant species(hibernation,birth and reproduction periods),which can reduce the amount of food available or disrupt the relationship between plant

227、s and their pollinators.Climate change also influences the evolution of species.If it occurs too rapidly for some species to adapt through natural selection,others are biologically affected,experiencing changes in size or physiology.For exa-mple,turtle eggs develop into females when temperatures exc

228、eed 31C,causing demographic imbalances that compromise their reproductive capacity.In the northern Great Barrier Reef,87%of turtles are now female.The IPCC estimates that if global warming exceeds+2C by the end of the century,18%of all terrestrial species will be at high risk of extinction,while if

229、it reaches+4.5C,around half of all recorded plant and animal species will be threatened.This situation is particularly critical in biodi-versity hotspots,where up to 100%of endemic species living exclusively in these regions will be threatened with extinction.4948 MNHN,“Le Musum face aux enjeux clim

230、atiques”.https:/www.mnhn.fr/fr/le-museum-face-aux-enjeux-climatiques.49 IPCC,2022,“Climate Change 2022:Impacts,Adaptation,and Vulnerability”,Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Prtner H-O.,Roberts DC.,Tignor M.,Poloczanska

231、ES.,Mintenbeck K.,Alegra A.,et al.,editors.Cambridge University Press.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE44Lastly,the drying up of water bodies and the reduction in river flow increase the concentration of pollution.Natural productivity,stimulated by near-tropical rainfall,increased tem-peratures and rising CO level

232、s,might in places seem like an opportunity for biodiversity.But by upsetting highly specialized species or encoura-ging the spread of opportunistic pests,these rapid changes are having the opposite effect.Moreover,the increased growth of lianas,linked to rising CO levels,is causing some fragile fore

233、sts to collapse in on themselves.In short,climate change is also disrupting the scientific framework within which we currently understand biodiversity loss,hindering our ability to accurately predict the consequences.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER45The 2015 Paris Agreement establish

234、ed a trajectory to address this pres-sure.The numerous public policies and corporate action plans that fol-lowed are not the primary focus of this report.However,the synergies between biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation will be examined.Overall,the IPBES estimates that these firs

235、t two pressures alone,changes in land and sea use and pollution,are responsible for most of the Source:Emmanuelle Porcher,Biodiversity and Ecosystems Chair,Inaugural lecture“Plant-pollinator interactions,a showcase for the biodiversity crisis”,Collge de France,18 January 2024Destructionof habitatsAg

236、ricultureUrbanizationForestryPowerGenerationPollutionClimatechangeInvasiveAlien SpeciesOverexploitedResourcesMiningTransportInfrastructureTourismFigure 6:Main Human Activities and Pressures on BiodiversityOperations Production Operations InfrastructureINSTITUT MONTAIGNE46biodiversity loss.The remain

237、ing third is due to three other factors directly linked to human activities:overexploitation of resources,climate change and the proliferation of invasive alien species.This order of magnitude is useful for analysis but should be nuanced based on the ecosystems stu-died.It is also important to stres

238、s the need for further scientific research into the consequences of human pressures on marine ecosystems,which are less well understood than terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems.A common understanding of the five pressures is essential for anyone aiming to produce an operational analysis related to bio

239、diversity.The-refore,our study will not focus on biodiversity itself but rather on the pressures it faces and ways to alleviate them.The consequences for bio-diversity extend far beyond the loss of individual species.Since these pressures impact resource quality and quantity,as well as the health of

240、 ecosystems,each pressure diminishes their functional capacities,ultima-tely affecting human societies.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER471.2.FRAMEWORK 2:PLANETARY BOUNDARIES,THE LAST RED LINE?“On a cosmic scale,liquid water is rarer than gold.For life,it is infinitely more precious.”H

241、ubert Reevesa.Planetary Boundaries:Genesis of a ConceptAfter outlining the main factors affecting biodiversity,we need to take into account certain critical thresholds beyond which Earths habitability for human beings will no longer be guaranteed.The concept of planetary boundaries,defined in 2009 b

242、y an international team of researchers and adopted by the Stockholm Resilience Center,identifies nine biogeophy-sical processes necessary for the stability and resilience of the planetary system.This framework has been developed to provide decision-makers with a clear understanding of the evolution

243、of the“Earth system”as a whole and the interconnection between these various issues.For each of the defined planetary boundaries,the research group from the Stockholm Resilience Center has established three zones:a safe ope-rating space that maintains viable conditions for evolution,a zone of uncert

244、ainty,and a high-risk zone.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE48Preserved living spaceBlue waterGreenwaterNitrogenPhosphoreClimateChangeBiodiversityLossOceanAcidificationDisruptionof NitrogenCycles Disruptionof PhosphorusCycles Change ofLand UseDepletionof StratosphericOzone New EntitiesIntroduced intothe Environmen

245、tFreshwaterUse and CycleSource:based on the framework published by the Stockholm Resilience Center in September 2023.Figure 7:The 9 Planetary BoundariesLimits Exceeded(High Risk)Limits Exceeded(Increasing Risk)Limits Not ExceededBIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER49Aside from the planeta

246、ry boundary“Biodiversity Loss”presented separa-tely,we have chosen in this report to interlink the five pressures and the planetary boundaries.5050 Richardson K.et al.,13 September 2023,“Earth beyond six of nine planetary boundaries”,Science Advances,vol.9,no.37.https:/www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sc

247、iadv.adh2458.51 Global Monitoring Laboratory,Trends in Athmospheric Carbon Dioxide.https:/gml.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/global.html.Introduction of new entities into the environmentCriteria:Species extinction rate per million species per year and Biosphere Integrity Index(BII).Evolution since the pre-ind

248、ustrial era:Changes in population abundance by biome,major region or large ecosystem.Critical threshold LIIB ne doit pas tre infrieur 90%.Current threshold:the boundary was crossed in 2009,with 100 extinctions per million species.Biodiversity LossClimate ChangeCO2 concentration in the atmosphereConc

249、entration of CO2 in the atmosphere in particles per million(ppm).Uncertainty zone:350 ppm.Current rate:450 ppmAt the end of 2023,according to the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,the average ppm rate was 421 and continuing to rise steadily.51050100150200250300350400450500ppmINSTITU

250、T MONTAIGNE50Radiative ForcingThe difference between the solar radiation received and the infrared radiation emitted by Earth as a result of climate change factors.Maximum variation in radiative forcing:+1 W/m2.Change in radiative forcing in 2022:+2,91 W/m2.00.30.60.91.21.51.82.12.42.73.0+W/m2Distur

251、bance of phosphorus cycles in marine and freshwater areasZone of uncertainty for marine areas:11 million tons per yearFlows in 2015:22 million tons.Zone dincertitude pour les zones deaux douces:6,2millions de tonnes par an.Flows in 2015:14.2 million tons.00448812121616202024242828323236364040Million

252、s of tons per yearMillions of tons per yearPollutionIntroduction of new entities into the environmentInitially,this planetary boundary referred to“chemical pollution.It now includes new forms of modified life(such as GMOs)and plastic pollution.Critical threshold:0%of synthetic molecules not tested.C

253、urrent rate 80%of chemicals registered in the EU have been in use for 10 years without having undergone a safety assessment.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER51Disruption of nitrogen cyclesArea of uncertainty:6.2 million tons spread and fixed by legume crops per year.Current quantity:14

254、0 million to.020406080100120140160180200Millions of tons per yearOzone DepletionStratospheric ozone(12 to 50 km above sea level)filters out carcinogenic ultraviolet rays.The presence of chlorinated molecules in the atmosphere disrupts the ozoneoxygen cycle,causing what is commonly referred to as the

255、“hole in the ozone layer.Stratospheric ozone concentration limit:276 Dobson Units(DU).Current rate:284 Dobson Units(DU).Since the Montreal Protocol in 1987,chlorinated gases have been banned and replaced by fluorinated gases:international mobilization and the proper application of the law have enabl

256、ed a return to acceptable levels.04080120160200240280320360400Dobson Units Quantity of Airborne ParticlesIt is expressed in terms of the optical charge of aerosols.Current threshold:not quantified at global level but exceeded at regional level.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE52Ocean AcidificationOcean surface car

257、bon ion concentration relative to aragonite(arag).Minimum threshold set at 2.75 arag.Current rate:2.80 arag.00.40.81.21.62.02.42.83.23.64.0aragLand Use Change and Climate ChangeVegetation cover declineComparison of current vegetation cover to that of 1700.Three biomes(tropical,boreal,and temperate)a

258、re assessed and weighted to obtain the global average.Danger zone:54%Current average:60%However,the limit has been crossed for the tropical biomes in Africa and Asia,as well as for the boreal biome in Asia.0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER53Overexploite

259、d Resources,Climate Change and PollutionDisruption of the freshwater cycleQuantity of available freshwater(blue water),global consumption of surface and groundwater in km3 per year.Global withdrawal limit:4,000 km3Current global withdrawals:1,700 km3Green water:water absorbed by plants,including rai

260、nfall,soil moisture and evapotranspiration.Researchers believe that this limit has been exceeded.04008001,2001,6002,0002,4002,8003,2003,6004,000km3 of global withdrawalsThis analytical framework is intended to guide the sustainable manage-ment of natural resources.It evolves in line with scientific

261、knowledge.For example,in the 2023 version of the study on planetary boundaries,published in the journal Nature,52 the authors reformulated certain boun-daries and defined two new ones linked to biodiversity.In their view,to maintain Earths habitability,between 50 and 60%of the worlds land surface sh

262、ould be covered by largely intact natural ecosystems(terrestrial and marine).In addition,all land managed by humans should contain at least 20-25%of diversified semi-natural habitats.These studies empha-size the need to preserve and restore critical natural ecosystems and to reintroduce nature into

263、anthropized areas on a local scale.The concept of planetary boundaries makes it possible to map the planets situation at a given moment in relation to habitability thresholds,and highlights the acceleration of threshold breaches.However,exceeding 52 Rockstrm J.,Gupta J.,Qin D.et al.,2023,“Safe and j

264、ust Earth system boundaries.Nature,619.https:/ MONTAIGNE54one threshold says nothing about the consequences for other planetary thresholds.To complete the picture,we need to introduce the notion of“points of no return”or“tipping points.The IPCC defines the point of no return as a threshold“beyond wh

265、ich a system often reorganizes itself abruptly and/or irreversibly.When these tipping points are crossed,they in turn generate chain reactions that contribute to climate change:these are the feedback loops.Initially deve-loped in the context of climate change,these points of no return apply to biodi

266、versity.The 16 tipping points identified by the IPCC are illustrated on the map below.Figure 8:Climate Tipping Points(based on global temperature rise)Source:Blind Kempinski F.,21 November 2022,“Rchauffement:ces 16 points de bascule qui nous menacent”,Les Echos.https:/www.lesechos.fr/weekend/planete

267、/rechauffement-ces-16-points-de-rupture-qui-nous-menacent-1915458.Arctic CryosphereCollapseAtmospheric-OceanCirculation in theLabrador SeaGreenland Ice SheetDisintegrationShutdown of the AtlanticMeridional OverturningCirculation(AMOC)Amazon Rainforest DiebackWest Antarctic Ice Sheet MeltingEast Anta

268、rctic Ice Sheet MeltingEast Antarctic Ice SheetSubglacial BasinsMountain Glacier MeltNorthward Shift ofthe Boreal ForestAbrupt Thawingof Boreal PermafrostRapid Sea Ice Loss inthe Barents SeaDisruption ofSahel Vegetationand West AfricanMonsoonSouthward Shift ofthe Boreal ForestCoral Reef ExtinctionBo

269、realPermafrost CollapseLess than 2 C2 to 4 CMore than 4 CRising temperatures:xxxx:regional point of no return xxxx:global point of no returnBIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER55The IPCC estimates that all coral reefs would disappear with a 2C increase in temperature.Although corals cover

270、 only 0.2%of the oceans surface,they provide essential habitats,serving as breeding grounds,nurseries,and protection against predators for 30%of marine biodiversity.Addi-tionally,500 million people directly depend on corals for their liveliho-ods through fishing,not to mention the income generated b

271、y tourism.By absorbing wave energy,corals also help mitigate coastal erosion and reduce storm damage.Moreover,corals and humans share common genetic heritage.One coral species has a 48%genetic similarity with humans,presenting significant potential for medical research.In com-parison,the genetic sim

272、ilarity of the widely used lab species,the fruit fly(Drosophila),is only 8%.53Taken together,the three concepts of planetary boundaries,tipping points and feedback loops establish the geophysical framework neces-sary to sustain human life and the risks associated with environmental change.54 They un

273、derline the interconnectedness of our planetary system and call for holistic analysis and action plans.Indeed,these concepts are not just scientific notions;they also serve as a reminder that exceeding certain boundaries and the acceleration of extreme physical events jeopardize,in the very short te

274、rm,the living conditions of certain populations,especially in developing countries.These communities are directly confronted with the degradation of their living conditions due to climate change,pollution,floods,and resource scarcity.While the concept of planetary boundaries indicates a ceiling that

275、 should not be exceeded,it also raises the question of a social foun-dation that ensures everyone has a decent standard of living and equi-table access to ecosystem services.It is therefore crucial to align the social 53 Monaco Oceanographic Institute.54 Feedback loops are chain reactions resulting

276、from climate disruption and climate change that contribute to speeding it up.27 feedback loops have been identified by the scientists:melting permafrost,drying peat bogs and forest fires that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere are just some examples.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE56foundation of human

277、rights with the ceiling of planetary boundaries,as they are interdependent,with the latter forming the very basis of the former.The challenge is therefore twofold,but as illustrated by Kate Raworth in her Doughnut Theory,it should enable socially just and ecologically sustainable development.In her

278、book,she advocates for a shift from the predominant linear economy,which focuses on GDP growth,to a circular economy that,without relying on degrowth,adopts a sustainable and inclusive approach aimed at reconciling human well-being with envi-ronmental protection.The doughnut is created by juxtaposin

279、g two discs that define the boundaries of this economic model:on one hand,a social foundation representing social indicators essential for well-being,based on the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals;and on the other,an environmental ceiling indicating the nine planetary boundaries that must

280、 not be crossed to ensure environmental preservation.The area between these two boundaries forms the“safe and just space for huma-nity,”which represents an optimal balance between social and environ-mental considerations.This approach emphasizes the need to address these issues holistically,without

281、setting them against each other.BIODIVERSIT ET CONOMIELES INSPARABLES57b.Climate and Biodiversity:Synergies to Develop While climate issues long remained on the periphery of environmental policies,they have gained such prominence since the 1980s that they now dominate the environmental debate.This p

282、redominance of climate change over all other environmental considerations often traps public and private stakeholders in siloed thinking,constrained by regulations,which can lead to counterproductive decisions from a biodiversity pers-pective and can have significant social impacts,particularly on t

283、he most vulnerable.There is still a strong tendency to address these two issues in isolation,especially since there is no universal biodiversity indicator com-parable to tCOe and there is a significant legislative and regulatory bias in favor of climate.However,while the vast majority of solutions p

284、rovide co-benefits for addressing both crises and biodiversity-friendly solutions are generally beneficial for the climate as well,the IPBES report reminds us that the reverse is not necessarily true,as illustrated by Figure9 on the following page.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE5855 This pattern is likely to cha

285、nge as certain solutions are scaled up.Interactions are also likely to change as a result of unforeseen positive or negative effects.Source:IPBES-IPCC co-sponsored workshop report on biodiversity and climate change,2021.Preserving forest wells118171619202322212425181716192018162221172220232221242532

286、14567123214524116712321459812671453167111089321459812673214567316793214598673214141817161920232221242518171619202523222124251817161920232221242518171619252026221817161923181716192023222124251817161920232221242518171619232218171619212220Blue Carbon RestorationBlue Carbon ConservationForest Restoratio

287、nPeatland Conservation/RestorationSustainable Forest ManagementAforestationClimate-Smart AgricultureLivestock and Pasture ManagementFood Waste ReductionDietary ChangesBioenergy and BECCSSolar EnergyHydropowerOther Alternative EnergiesNatural Ecosystems ConservationProtected Area ConservationRestorat

288、ion of Degraded EcosystemsSpecies ReintroductionSustainable AgricultureSustainable FishingReduction of Pressure on EcosystemsSubsidy ReformSustainable Production and ConsumptionBiodiversity MainstreamingNegative impactPositive effectEcosystemsFoodEnergyFire management23456789101112131415161718192021

289、2223242526321459810671112Figure9:Some Examples of Climate Action and its Impact on Biodiversity55BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER59Historically,environmental protection emerged from concerns about hygiene and the desire to safeguard populations from local nuisances.It reflects a vigil

290、ance,even a degree of mistrust,towards certain activities considered dangerous or unhealthy.The protection of resources,which forms the foundation of environmen-tal law,dates back even further.For instance,in France in 1302,royal decrees aimed to reconcile the various possible uses of the forest but

291、,more importantly,to ensure the sustainability of an economic resource.With the creation of the IPCC in 1988,environmental policies have often adopted a somewhat narrow approach,prioritizing CO equivalent(tCOe)as the primary,if not sole,metric.Energy criteria dominate,while other equally fundamental

292、 issues,such as pollution control,resource use,and land-use change,are neglected.However,the IPCC emphasizes the crucial role of terrestrial vegetation,which absorbs 30%of anthropoge-nic carbon annually.Despite the recognition of biodiversity as a means of mitigating climate change,it remains under-

293、analyzed,often reduced to this single role or simply overlooked.The shift from the concept of“nature”to the broader notion of“biodiversity”reflects an evolution from a case-by-case protection logic to a comprehensive approach to interac-tions.Thus,climate and biodiversity intersect:combating climate

294、 change is a precursor and integral part of the fight against biodiversity loss.Climate and biodiversity co-benefits are real:in the previously mentioned joint report,56 published in 2021,the IPBES and the IPCC emphasize that solutions that simultaneously address the dual crises of climate and bio-d

295、iversity create fruitful synergies.Biodiversity plays a crucial role in the fight against climate change.It contributes directly to the resilience of ecosystems,facilitates carbon 68 IPBES-IPCC,(2021),Co-sponsored workshop report on biodiversity and climate change,IPBES and IPCC.https:/zenodo.org/re

296、cords/4920414.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE60storage and supports ecosystem services.In addition to the forests pre-viously mentioned,mangroves,grasslands and wetlands are natural carbon sinks:plant biomass and soils store large quantities of CO.For example,mangroves,found in tropical and subtropical coastal a

297、reas,sequester up to four times more carbon per hectare than terrestrial forests.As for peat bogs,which account for just 3%of Earths surface,they store twice as much carbon as all the worlds forests.The“Central Cuvette”,the largest peatland area in the world located in the Congo Basin,contains almos

298、t 30 gigatons of carbon,equivalent to the CO2 emis-sions of the United States for 15 years.57 Generally speaking,in addition to their capacity to sequester carbon,wetlands contribute to the resilience of ecosystems and therefore limit the negative consequences of climate change for human communities

299、.They mitigate flooding by absorbing water during periods of heavy rainfall while limiting the risk of drought,and filter pollutants and nutrients.Mangroves and other salt marchhes also protect coastlines from decay while reducing the impact of storms.The mangroves of the Sundarbans in India and Ban

300、gladesh,a Ramsar zone,biosphere reserve and UNESCO World Heritage Site,offer natural protection against cyclones.In addition,a high level of biodiversity means that environments are more resilient and recover more quickly from disturbances.In grass-lands,for example,different plant species contribut

301、e to the stability of the ecosystem by exploiting different soil layers for water and nutrients,while dams built by beavers,for example,create wetlands and calm water bodies that diversify the available habitat and encourage the esta-blishment of numerous animal and plant species.They also reduce th

302、e risk of drought,decay and flooding,filter pollutants,trap sediment and nutrients,and sequester carbon by encouraging vegetation growth and burying organic matter.57 UNEP,2018,“Protecting peatlands,protecting the planet,”https:/www.unep.org/fr/actualites-et-recits/recit/proteger-les-tourbieres-prot

303、eger-la-planete.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER61Finally,genetic diversity within species promotes better adaptation to changing conditions,thereby increasing the ability of species to survive in a changing climate.The diversity of crop varieties,such as traditio-nal rice varieties i

304、n Asia or maize in Latin America,provides protection against diseases and extreme climatic conditions.Consequently,and because biodiversity offers solutions for mitigating and adapting to climate change,it is necessary to develop an integrated approach that recognizes the existence of complex intera

305、ctions between living organisms and the climate.Seeking convergences allows us to maximize synergies,which is a key factor for optimization in a context of limited resources.In this way,and to quote Aristide Briand,it will be possible to“reconcile the desirable with the possible.”It is important to

306、remember that the legislative context is increasingly attempting to strike a balance between the energy transition and the preservation of biodiversity.A comprehensive approach to environmental issues is emerging,integra-ting both pressures on biodiversity and the climate challenge.However,the urgen

307、cy of the environmental crisis calls for accelerating the integra-tion of these two issues,giving them equal priority in both public and private stakeholders decision-making.2 Our Economic Prosperity Is Directly Dependent on BiodiversityUnderstanding biodiversity-related issues is an essential prere

308、quisite for action.Today,it is hindered by a lack of recognition of the services provi-ded by ecosystems and the challenges in measuring biological diversity INSTITUT MONTAIGNE62and the positive and negative impacts of business activities.While half of the global GDP directly depends on biodiversity

309、,its decline is being accelerated by human pressures.Figure10:Interrelationships Between businesses and BiodiversitySource:OFB,April 2022,“Biodiversity issues for businesses:What are the risks and opportunities of taking biodiversity into account?Why build a commitment to nature?.https:/www.arbe-reg

310、ionsud.org/Block/download/?id=194777&filename=2-OFB-enjeux-ARBE.pdf.Ecosystem ServicesProcurement servicesRegulatory servicesCultural and social servicesBiodiversityCompanies Risks and Opportunities for BusinessesSourcingMarketReputationRegulationsFinancingInspirationFactors in Biodiversity LossChan

311、ge of land usePollutionOverexploited resourcesInvasive alien speciesClimate changeSuppliesUseHave an impactParticipateHave an impactBIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER632.1.OUR DEPENDENCE ON NATURE IS DANGEROUSLY INVISIBLEThe geniuses of this world always show a contempt for cosmic laws

312、proportional to the confidence they place in their own small selves.Sylvain Tesson,Brzina,2015a.Ecosystem Services:An Inescapable RealityEcosystem services can be defined as“the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems.58 In contrast,environmental services are“the services that people provide to

313、each other through their use of nature.59 These include,for example,actions that encourage the planting or mainte-nance of hedgerows or the maintenance of a complete ecosystem such as a hedged landscape.From an economic point of view,environmental services are positive externalities.Payments for env

314、ironmental services,which will be further elaborated on,are therefore intended to compen-sate for the additional provision of services.Ecosystem services are economically valuable,but they are still poorly understood,even though several types of classification attempt to account for them.The first i

315、s based on the distinction between producers and consumers of services,in an economic system described as ecologi-cal solidarity.The second,based on the type of service provided,is the most commonly used and is the one used in this report.72 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,2005,“Ecosystems and Human

316、 Well-being:Biodiversity Synthesis”,World Resources Institute.73 Karsenty A.,2013,De la nature des“paiements pour services environnementaux.Revue du MAUSS,no.42.https:/doi.org/10.3917/rdm.042.0261.INSTITUT MONTAIGNE64 Provisioning Services:These include the production of resources obtained from ecos

317、ystems(food,water,timber,genetic resources)that support numerous economic activities related to the primary sector.They provide a range of services free of charge,such as the production of food resources and raw materials for derivative indus-tries like textiles,pharmaceuticals,etc.In France,these s

318、ervices are estimated to be worth 80 billion euros.60 Regulatory Services:They refer to the ability of ecosystems to regu-late essential environmental processes such as climate regulation,water purification,and waste management.Regulation services are among the most difficult to quantify.The EFESE e

319、stimates that in France,CO storage alone can be valued at approximately 7billion euros per year.61 Support Services:These include everything that is necessary for the production of other ecosystem services(e.g.,pollination,the nutrient cycle and soil formation).Social and Cultural Services:These mor

320、e intangible benefits include spiritual enrichment,cognitive development,well-being,recreation,tourism,and,more broadly,aesthetic experiences.Many touristic and sports activities connect people with nature.According to the World Tourism Organization,30%of stays and 33%of overnight stays in France ta

321、ke place in natural areas.60 Direction gnrale du Trsor,dcembre 2021,tude valuations conomiques des services rendus par la biodiversit,Trsor-Eco no.294.61 CGDD,septembre 2020,Efese Du constat laction,Rapport de premire phase.https:/www.ecologie.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/Efese%20-%20Rapport%20de%20p

322、remi%C3%A8re%20phase%20-%20Du%20constat%20%C3%A0%20l%27action%20-%20Synth%C3%A8se.pdf.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER65Emphasizing the intrinsic value of nature,seen as external to human beings,may be insufficient to engage certain stakeholders.However,highlighting the social or anth

323、ropocentric value of biodiversity can pro-mote individual and collective responsibility.Source:“And biodiversity in all this”,2023,Auddic.EnergyMedical resourcesMaterialsRegulatingClimate regulationWater regulationWater qualityLand qualityAir qualitypest controlextreme eventsPollinationSoil formatio

324、nIdentity supportDisease and Regulation ofthe oceansLearningGeneticsand inspirationPhysical and psycho-Power supply logical experiencesSocial andCultural ServicesProvisioningRegulatory ContributionsSupportFigure11:Main Contributions of Nature to PopulationsINSTITUT MONTAIGNE66Anthropocentric value m

325、akes it possible to emphasize the many benefits provided by nature to humankind,and the fact that,given the current state of technology,biodiversity constitutes an unsurpassable framework in many areas.The regulating services provided by nature are not subs-titutable:acknowledging this dependence is

326、 the first step toward inte-grating the true value of nature into all our decisions,a prerequisite for ensuring a sustainable future on Earth.b.Dependence on Biodiversity Is Underestimated:The Example of Health 62According to IPBES scientists,the current decline of nature is already causing“serious

327、impacts on human populations worldwide.”The effects of overexploitation of fishery resources on communities directly reliant on fishing have already been discussed.It is also important to note that 250 million vulnerable people depend on forests for food,heating,and shelter,and approximately 70%of f

328、ruits and vegetables produced in France rely on insect pollinators.The destabilization of ecosystems leads to limited or lost access to healthy and diverse food,increasing the risk of famine,malnutrition(including in France),and related chronic diseases.Before the COVID 19 pandemic,the use of the te

329、rm“zoonosis”diseases that are transmitted from animals to humans 63 was confined to scienti-fic or veterinary publications,rarely reaching a broader audience.et,65%of emerging infectious diseases are zoonoses,and 72%of these originate from wildlife.64 The emergence or re-emergence of infectious dise

330、ases 62 For a full review of the literature on the subject:Nilsson K.,Bentsen P.,Grahn P.,Mygind L.,2019,“What scientific evidence do we have on the effects of forests on the environment?And trees on human health and well-being”,Sant Publique,special issue no.1.https:/www.cairn.info/revue-sante-publ

331、ique-2019-HS1-page-219.html#s2n7.63“Infections whose pathogens are transmitted naturally from vertebrate animals,most of which come from wild fauna,to humans,either through direct contact or indirectly,via biting insects such as mosquitoes and ticks”,Thierry D.,2020,“Atteintes la biodiversit et risq

332、ues pidmiques”,Revue juridique de lenvironnement,ditions Lavoisier.BIODIVERSITY AND THE ECONOMY BIRDS OF A FEATHER67transmissible to humans was found to be four times higher in the 2000s compared to the 1940s.65 It has been demonstrated that biodiversity loss facilitates the spread of pathogens.Furt

333、hermore,land-use change brings humans,livestock,and domestic animals into contact with previously isolated wildlife species.For pathogens to thrive,they need a vector for transmission.By adapting to a dominant species(livestock),they not only ensure better dissemination but also,through increased contact with humans,develop the potential to adapt to our species as well.Conversely,the biodiversity