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TABLE 4 Adoption of risk management tools in the EU during the 2014-2022 period

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insurance against economic losses caused by adverse climatic events, diseases, or pest infestations. The CAP would reimburse a share of farmers' premium costs (initially up to 65 percent), aiming to make insurance affordable and attractive. mutual funds that provide pay-outs to farmers for production losses caused by climatic events, ani- mal/plant diseases, or environmental incidents. These are reserve pools, often managed by producer organizations or cooperatives, that operate on the principle of collective self-insurance. pensate farmers for severe income drops, irrespective of the cause of the loss. The IST would com- cal average, covering up to 70 percent of the income shortfall. calculation of losses, etc.). In parallel, the reform updated state aid rules to complement the CAP toolkit, meaning that governments could more easily fund schemes outside the CAP. In effect, Member States had two frameworks: the new CAP risk management toolkit (also known as Measure 17), or continued reliance on national funds under looser state aid rules. The rollout of the 2014-2020 CAP risk toolkit was varied and led by insurance. About two thirds of mutual funds. By 2020, 18 Member States had notified use of crop insurance subsidies via the CAP, though very small pilots in others). However, many countries - including Spain, Austria and Poland - opted not to use RDP funds for insurance, either because they had substantial national insurance subsidies outside the CAP (as in Spain's case) or because an insurance culture was lacking. Some countries opted to use CAP funds to support mutual funds, such as France. In contrast to insurance, the IST saw almost no uptake. The Omnibus 2017 reforms provided mid-term improvements. Midway through the 2014-2020 period, ness. The Omnibus Regulation (EU) 2017/2393 — a CAP amendment package —- introduced several import-

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