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1、UN-HabitatRegional Office for Arab States Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-based Adaptation in the Arab RegionFunding&support:AcknowledgmentsThe Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-based Adaptation in the Arab region is a product of the generous dedication of numerous individuals.Lead AuthorEhab EidContrib
2、utors&ReviewersGaelle Seif,United Nations Environment Programme,Regional Office for West AsiaGeetha Nayak,United Nations Environment Programme,Regional Office for West AsiaOmnia Moussa,UN-Habitat Regional Office for Arab StatesYara Eissa,UN-Habitat Regional Office for Arab StatesYasmine Mostafa,UN-H
3、abitat Regional Office for Arab StatesVisual DesignAna Luz Pastore Garcia,UN-Habitat Regional Office for Arab StatesOmnia Moussa,UN-Habitat Regional Office for Arab StatesCopy EditorPrashansa TanejaFundingProduced with support from the United Nations Environment ProgrammeGuidelines for Urban Ecosyst
4、em-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionUnited Nations Human Settlements Programme(UN-Habitat)P.O.Box 30030 00100 Nairobi GPO KENYAwww.unhabitat.orgDisclaimer:The presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the secretariat of the Un
5、ited Nations concerning the legal status of any county,territory,city or area or its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries regarding its economic system or degree of development.Excerpts may be reproduced without authorization,on condition that the source is indic
6、ated.Views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme,the United Nations and its member states.Front Cover-Illustration:Ana PastoreBack Cover-Illustration:Omnia MoussaOasis in a desert ecosystem.Illustration by Ana PastoreCHAPTER
7、1 Urban Areas and Climate Change Impacts in the Arab Region 1.1 Introduction .131.2 Urban areas in the Arab region .131.3 Impacts of climate change on urban areas in the Arab region 151.3.1.Storms and floods .151.3.2.Sea level rise .151.3.3.Rising temperatures.161.3.4.Rainfall,drought,and desertific
8、ation.171.3.5.Wildfires.171.3.6.Sand and dust storms .18CHAPTER 2 Ecosystems,Ecosystem Services and Ecosystem-based Adaptation 192.1 Introduction .192.2 Ecosystems and ecosystem services.202.4 Impacts of climate change on ecosystems and ecosystem services.202.5 Nature-based Solutions and Ecosystem-b
9、ased Approaches.262.6 Rationale for EbA.282.7 Ecosystem-based Adaptation in multilateral environmental agreements and global agendas.31CHAPTER 3 Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Urban Area 353.1 Introduction.353.2 Implementing Ecosystem-based Adaptation in urban areas.353.3 Integrating EbA into urban d
10、evelopment planning .393.3.1 Climate risk and vulnerability assessment.393.3.2 Stakeholder engagement.393.3.3 Identification of EbA options and priorities.403.3.4 Designing adaptation options.413.3.5 Raising awareness and knowledge.423.3.6 Resource mobilization for EbA initiatives.423.3.7 Implementa
11、tion of prioritized EbA option(s).433.3.8 Monitoring and evaluation.44CHAPTER 4 Recommendations for Operationalizing the Guidelines 494.1 Introduction.494.2 Enhancing capacity building for EbA.494.3 Strategic long-term planning and resource management.504.4 Optimizing financing tools and strategies.
12、514.5 Strengthening governance and institutional frameworks.51Sand dunes.Illustration by Ana PastoreTable of Contents Executive summary 8 Acknowlegdements 31.List of tables 62.List of figures 63.List of Boxes 7Glossary 53References 57Annexes 63 Annex 1:Available tools and resources related to EbA 63
13、124|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|5 List of Tables Table 1:The different ecosystems in the Arab region and how climate change impacts each ecosystems services 21Table 2:Examples of EbA approaches t
14、hat can be applied in urban areas in the Arab region36Table 3:Sources of multilateral climate finance43List of Figures Figure 1:Percentage of the urban population in respect to the total population of the Arab region14Figure 2:Urban data on conflict and poverty in the Arab region14Figure 3:Nature-ba
15、sed Solutions and how they contribute to preserving,enhancing and utilizing natural capital26Figure 4:The role of ecosystems in climate change adaptation and mitigation27Figure 5:Map of Nile Delta and Norh coast of Egypt29Figure 6:Sketch of the dune-forming reed fences Credit:Alik Mikaelian,UNDP,202
16、2 29Figure 7:Dune-forming reed fences in Nile Delta.Credit:Alik Mikaelian,UNDP,2022 30Figure 8:Map of Bekaa Valley in Lebanon32Figure 9:Example of hydroponic agriculture in Lebanon Credits Georges Abi Sleiman 2024 33Figure 10:The flood performance of the channel is improved by reprofiling and regrad
17、ing Credit:Aga Khan Award for Architecture/Arriyadh Development Authority37Figure 11:Map of Wadi Hanifa in Saudi Arabia37Figure 12:Water filtration facility in Wadi Hanifa Credit:Aga Khan Award for Architecture/Arriyadh Development Authority38Figure 13:Walking trails and family compartments in the f
18、orm of semi-enclosed areas along the wadi Credit:Aga Khan Award for Architecture/Arriyadh Development Authority38Figure 14:Steps to integrate EbA into development planning at the different levels39Figure 15:Map of Bahrain and Qatar45Figure 16:Recreational activities around mangroves in Bahrain Credi
19、ts Hady Elcott,2023 46Figure 17:Afforestation efforts in Bahrain Credits Hady Elcott 2023 47List of Boxes Box 1:Urban Heat Islands(UHIs)effect 16Box 2:Dune-forming reed fences to combat sea-level rise in the Nile Delta,Egypt 29Box 3:Drought early warning system in Lebanon to support long-term drough
20、t risk management 32Box 4:A comprehensive development plan for the rehabilitation of Wadi Hanifah,Saudi Arabia 37Box 5:Afforestation and mangrove planting to address the risk of sea level rise45River ecosystem in an urban setting.Illustration by Omnia Moussa6|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Ada
21、ptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|7 Executive SummaryThe rapid pace of urbanization in the Arab region,coupled with inadequate planning,has placed significant strain on available natural resources.Soil,air,water,biodiversity,and delivery of
22、ecosystem services face numerous threats and challenges leading to their degradation or loss.Climate change further exacerbates these challenges due to inadequate institutional capacity to assess and address its expected impacts.In addition to climate change,the Arab region faces intermittent waves
23、of conflict-driven displacement in certain states.This forced migration and its resultant refugees place an enormous burden on host countries resources,including the infrastructure,A River Ecosystem in the Heart of the City.Artwork:Ana Pastore and Omnia Moussa8|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based A
24、daptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|9 water,energy,and social services.Given the compounding effects of climate change and other stresses in the Arab region,it becomes imperative to implement comprehensive programmes that can effectively ada
25、pt to the impacts and repercussions of climate change.Nature-based Solutions(NbS)are considered essential tools for effectively conserving,managing,and restoring natural or modified ecosystems that address societal challenges(such as climate change,food security,water security,and natural disasters)
26、while ensuring the well-being of people and biodiversity.Ecosystem-based Adaptation(EbA)is a nature-based solution that helps people adapt to climate change by employing ecosystem and biodiversity services as part of a holistic adaptation strategy.EbA aims to maintain and increase the resilience of
27、ecosystems while reducing the vulnerability of ecosystems and individuals to the adverse impacts of climate change.The Guidelines for Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Urban Areas of the Arab Region aim to support the mainstreaming and uptake of the EbA approach in the Arab region.These guidelines contr
28、ibute to familiarizing urban stakeholders with the EbA approach by presenting relevant definitions,case studies,and examples from urban areas in the Arab region;showcasing EbA as an effective approach to climate change adaptation that can yield multiple co-benefits;providing insight into the drivers
29、 and enablers of mainstreaming EbA into development planning;and outlining necessary steps for their integration.These steps include climate change risk and vulnerability,followed by stakeholder engagement,identification of EbA options and priorities,designing adaptation options,raising awareness an
30、d knowledge,funding EbA initiatives,implementation of prioritized EbA options,and monitoring and evaluation.The development of these guidelines has been a comprehensive process,keeping in mind the importance of caterering to a wide range of urban stakeholders,including national and local governments
31、,academics,researchers,urban development practitioners,non-governmental organisations,managers of climate adaptation programs,international organisations,the private sector,and other institutions interested in sustainability practices.Their purpose is to offer valuable insight and support to these e
32、ntities in their efforts to effectively incorporate EbA measures.Delal Bridge,a stone bridge over the Khabur river in the town of Zakho,Iraq.Illustration by Omnia Moussa based on photo by Bilal PhotographyGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|11 10|Guidelines for Urban E
33、cosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionChapter 1Urban Areas and Climate Change in the Arab Region1.1 IntroductionUrban areas house over half of the global population,with projections indicating that this figure will reach 68 per cent by 2050(United Nations,Department of Economic and Social Affa
34、irs,Population Division 2019).In its Sixth Assessment Report,the IPCC indicated that urban areas are responsible for an increasing share of global emissions,estimated at 67-72 per cent in 2020(IPCC 2022).A complex set of factors contribute to increasing urban greenhouse gas emissions,including popul
35、ation size and the form and state of urbanization.For instance,the building and construction sector alone accounted for 37 per cent of global energy and process emissions in 2021,and this trend is expected to rise(United Nations Environment Programme,2022).Another contributor is the transportation s
36、ector,accounting for 15 per cent of the worlds total greenhouse gas emissions(IPCC,2022),with road transport being responsible for three-fourths of these emissions(UN-Habitat,2021).Urban areas,being major socioeconomic hubs,are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change,including sea level r
37、ise,floods,heat/cold waves,and intense storms.These impacts affect human health and livelihoods,cause damage to infrastructure,and disrupt the provision of essential services to people living in cities.While the impacts of climate change are indiscriminately affecting all cities,some people are more
38、 vulnerable than others.For instance,there are over one billion people living in informal or unplanned urban areas,70 per cent of which are highly vulnerable to climate change-related hazards due to their limited adaptive capacities.Over the next two decades,at least 136 megacities are projected to
39、experience flooding,and if no mitigation measures are foreseen,coastal flooding alone will result in USD 1 trillion worth of annual damages by 2050(UN-Habitat,2021).An influx of climate change refugees will further strain the limited capacities and resources of cities.The process of rapid urbanizati
40、on and expansion of urban areas often have negative impacts on the environment,society,and the economy.This has become particularly apparent in recent years,during which time many cities worldwide have witnessed severe flooding resulting in damages to property and endangerment of lives.Rapid and unp
41、lanned urbanization also results in further encroachment on natural areas and ecosystems,leading to their degradation and creating even more challenges,such as lack of access to clean water sources,flooding,air quality degradation,and food insecurity.These issues exacerbate the negative social and e
42、conomic consequences,particularly for impoverished communities that depend on specific ecosystems for their livelihoods and income.1.2 Urban areas in the Arab regionArab countries are experiencing rapid urbanization,particularly in the major cities,due to significant population growth in the region.
43、The Arab population has more than quadrupled over the past six decades,growing from 93 million in 1960 to over 464 million in 2022(World Bank Group,n.d.).With a population growth rate of approximately 2.4 per cent the highest globally the Arab population is projected to further increase to 646 milli
44、on by 2050(UNDP,2022).Figure 1 illustrates the percentage of urban population in respect to the total population of the Arab region between 2010 and 2020,showing a constant increase in urban population,which stood at 59 per cent in 2022(ONeill,2023).While urbanization levels vary across Arab countri
45、es,they are generally high,ranging between 50 and 85 per cent.This rapid pace of urbanization in the Arab region coupled with inadequate or a lack of planning has placed significant strain on available natural resources.Urban Ecosystem.Illustration by Ana Pastore and Omnia MoussaGuidelines for Urban
46、 Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|13 12|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionIn a region facing multiple crises and geopolitical conflicts,intermittent waves of internal and external displacement have further strained resources in countries and cities hostin
47、g refugees and Internally Displaced Persons(IDPs).For example,the Syrian crisis has resulted in widespread migration and the displacement of over 6.6 million refugees(UN-ESCWA,2022),while the ongoing crisis in Sudan has resulted in more than 5 million IDPs and refugees(UNHCR,2023).These challenges a
48、re compounded by high levels of poverty experienced by most countries in the region and alarmingly high youth unemployment rates,given that over half of the regions population is under the age of 25.Figure 2 provides more information on conflict and poverty in the Arab region.Water scarcity is a sig
49、nificant issue in 19 of the 22 Arab countries,and at least 17 countries are affected by desertification and land degradation(UN-ESCWA,2022).The current utilization rate of water resources is estimated at 76.6 per cent,compared to a global utilization rate of approximately 7.5 per cent,with the agric
50、ultural sector being responsible for 81 per cent of water consumption(Arab Organization for Agricultural Development,2017;AbuZeid,Alroudy,CEDARE and Arab Water Council,2014;AbuZeid,Wagdy,Ibrahim,CEDARE and Arab Water Council,2019).Furthermore,the Arab region suffers from high levels of air pollution
51、,where 11 of the 22 Arab states exceed the world average of airborne particulate matter concentration.Egypt,Kuwait,Libya,Qatar,and Saudi Arabia are among the ten countries with the highest air pollution levels in the world,while Egypt,Iraq,and Saudi Arabia rank among the ten countries with the highe
52、st number of air pollution-related deaths(UN-ESCWA,2020).Figure 1:Percentage of the urban population in respect to the total population of the Arab region(ONeill,2023)56.44 2010201120122013201420152016201720182019202056.79 57.157.457.6958.0358.3558.6458.9359.259.47Almost 51.5M people in the region l
53、ive in multidimensional povertyAround 30.9%of urban dwellers in the region reside in slums,informal settlements,or inadequate housing.More than 81M inhabitants of the region live in informal settlements.Figure 2:Urban data on conflict and poverty in the Arab region.Sources:UNDP,2022;UN-Habitat,2020;
54、UN-ESCWA,20201.3 Impacts of climate change on urban areas in the Arab regionCities in the Arab region are susceptible to numerous climate-induced natural hazards,such as droughts,landslides,sandstorms,wildfires,floods,and heatwaves.Over the past decades,extreme weather events have increased in both
55、frequency and intensity,causing devastating loss of life and property.Statistics reveal that between 1984 and 2014,50 million people in the region were negatively affected by climate-related disasters that resulted in losses amounting to USD 11.5 billion(Banerjee et al,2014).Furthermore,the average
56、number of disasters caused by natural hazards in the MENA region has nearly tripled during the past three decades.This rise in frequency,along with the social,political,and economic challenges facing the region in the form of geopolitical conflicts,increased poverty and hunger,rapid urbanization,and
57、 population growth,contributes to its heightened vulnerability to the impacts of climate change(Banerjee et al,2014).1.3.1.Storms and floodsFloods are the most common of the various natural hazards in the Arab region.The threat of flooding in the Arab region occurs in three major forms depending on
58、geographical and climatic factors:1)flash floods,referring to the sudden and intense floods often triggered by heavy downpours in short periods,affecting mountainous and desert areas;2)riverine or wadi flooding which occurs when major rivers/wadis overflow due to excessive rainfall or snowmelt;and 3
59、)coastal flooding that occurs in low-lying coastal areas due to inundation from storm surges and rising sea levels.Several flood events have occurred in the Arab region,including the 2022 Yemen floods where heavy rain caused extreme flooding in several governorates,affecting tens of thousands of peo
60、ple and causing displacement and loss of life(United Nations,2022).Similar events involving heavy rainfall have caused urban flooding in the UAE,Egypt and Jordan.Due to lack of disaster preparedness and the limited capacity of stormwater drainage,such events have caused extensive damage to infrastru
61、cture,human displacement and loss of life and property(Narayanan,2022;IFRC,2024;Namrouqa,2018).Storms are considered extreme weather events that sometimes lead to unusual flooding as they generate huge quantities of rainwater in short periods of time.In 2023,Storm Daniel,that formed in the Mediterra
62、nean Sea,hit the coastal city of Derna in Libya and caused unprecedented flood water damage to infrastructure and property.The resulting floods swept across the city of Derna,killing thousands of people and destroying almost a quarter of the city.The International Federation of the Red Cross and Red
63、 Crescent Societies announced that at least 10,000 people had gone missing.These extreme events are only expected to increase in intensity as global warming increases(Papadimas and Chestney,2023;Reuters,2023).1.3.2.Sea level riseSea level rise(SLR)also poses a significant threat to coastal areas in
64、the region,and is expected to displace millions of people.Projections indicate that SLR of just one meter would directly affect 41,500 km2 of coastal land in the Arab region(Arab Forum for Environment and Development,2009).Several coastal cities in Arab countries are vulnerable to SLR,including Algi
65、ers(Algeria),Manama(Bahrain),Alexandria(Egypt),Kuwait,Beirut(Lebanon),Tripoli(Libya),Tangier(Morocco),Qatar,Tunis(Tunisia),and Dubai(the UAE).It is estimated that 3.2 per cent of the Arab population will be directly affected by this phenomenon,compared to the global average of 1.28 per cent.In Egypt
66、,where the majority of agricultural land is located in the Nile Delta,14|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|15 only 1 meter of SLR could negatively affect 12 per cent of the countrys agricultural land a
67、nd 2-4 million farmers(Arab Forum for Environment and Development,2009;UNDP,2018).Furthermore,rising sea levels in low-lying coastal areas are projected to cause further displacement as storms introduce saltwater into rivers,thereby degrading aquifers and agricultural land.It is forecasted that over
68、 43 coastal cities in the region will be affected by SLR(Borghesi and Ticci,2019).In Alexandria,Egypt,for instance,SLR of 0.5 meters could potentially displace 1.5 million residents from their homes(Verner,2012).1.3.3.Rising temperaturesAccording to the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC,the Arab r
69、egion is expected to experience a rise in average annual temperatures ranging from 0C to 2C between 2011 and 2041(IPCC,2014).Temperatures in the Middle East are already increasing almost twice as fast as the global rate of warming,while the intensity and frequency of heatwaves,which have also increa
70、sed,are expected to rise by 16 per cent by 2040(Zittis et al,2022;Oxfam,2023).According to a study published in 2021,the Middle East is expected to experience super and ultra-extreme heatwaves in coming years,where temperatures will rise to 56C and higher for prolonged durations,up to several weeks
71、at a time(Zittis et al,2021).Many incidents of heatwaves have already occurred in the Arab region,which experienced one of the hottest weeks ever recorded globally,with severe heatwaves affecting millions in July 2023.In 2022,extreme heatwaves affected Iraq,where temperatures exceeded 50C,leading to
72、 government-imposed vacations,power outages,and health concerns especially for outdoor workers(Loveluck and Salim,2022).The North African heatwave in 2021 has affected Tunisia,which witnessed record-breaking temperatures,causing wildfires and power outages(Reuters,2022).Box 1:Urban Heat Islands(UHIs
73、)effectIn addition to rising temperatures,cities experience a unique phenomenon called the Urban Heat Island(UHI)effect,where temperatures in the city are significantly higher than in its surroundings.This phenomenon occurs due to the absorption and re-emission of solar heat by buildings and asphalt
74、,and by other sources such as vehicles,air conditioners,and power stations(U.S.Environmental Protection Agency,2008).With the increasing frequency of extreme weather events due to climate change,the impact of UHIs is likely to intensify.Increasing green spaces in cities by creating urban parks,fores
75、ts,and planting trees and vegetation on public streets and rooftops can help mitigate this phenomenon.An increase in green spaces helps by reducing the air temperature through evaporation and by providing shade.Green spaces also have the additional benefits of reduced surface water runoff,carbon seq
76、uestration,and improved air quality,and can add to the aesthetic value and cultural significance of a place.Extremely high temperatures pose significant health risks,particularly to the elderly,children,and those with underlying illnesses.Notably,there is a clear correlation between high temperature
77、s and an increase in deaths related to cerebrovascular disease,ischemia,and other heart conditions,which aligns with findings from similar studies conducted in other regions.Conversely,cold waves can inflict damage on agriculture,infrastructure,and property.For instance,severe cold,heavy snowfall,an
78、d cold waves could disrupt entire areas by causing flooding,storm surges,power outages,and road closures(UNESCO,2021).1.3.4.Rainfall,drought,and desertificationThe Arab region is the most water scarce region in the world,possessing the lowest freshwater resources.The majority of Arab countries suffe
79、r from chronic water scarcity and fall below the water poverty line of 1,000 m3 per capita per year(Al-Zubari,2017).Rural populations,heavily dependent on subsistence agriculture and climate-affected grazing,are particularly vulnerable to changes in rainfall quantities resulting from climate change.
80、The arid climate and limited water resources force countries in the region to rely heavily on food imports to sustain their populations.Some of the poorest countries in the region face the challenge of malnutrition,especially their rural non-agricultural households living in remote areas.North Afric
81、a has already experienced significant decreases in rainfall and rainy-day frequency.Rainfall is expected to decrease by up to 50 per cent in the region due to climate change,accompanied by more intense heatwaves and droughts.By the year 2050 the Arab regions water supply will be down to only 15 per
82、cent of what it was in the 1960s(UNDP,2018).This reduction in water supply is expected to lead to an increase in water and food-borne diseases in addition to serious repercussions for food security(UNESCO,2021).Locust infestations,which typically occur after heavy rainfall,are a menace to agricultur
83、e and food security in the Arab region.These insects can decimate agricultural lands within a matter of hours and,due to their sheer numbers,swiftly destroy vast areas in a relatively short period.Locust outbreaks are unpredictable,lasting anywhere from 1 to 14 years before entering a period of rece
84、ssion.The consequences of locust attacks are extensive and include crop losses,degradation of topsoil,displacement of rural populations,and desertification(UNESCO,2021).1.3.5.WildfiresImpacts of climate change in the region,including rising temperatures and high precipitation variability,have exacer
85、bated the risk of wildfires.Higher temperatures and heatwaves create drier conditions,which increases the likelihood of vegetation drying out and becoming more susceptible to ignition.Moreover,altered precipitation patterns lead to more intense and less predictable rainfall events.This can result in
86、 extended periods of drought followed by heavy rainfall,contributing to vegetation stress and fuel buildup and increasing the risk of wildfires during dry periods.Several other factors can contribute to more wildfires,such as shifts in vegetation patterns and species composition,as well as human act
87、ivities like land use changes and population growth which can further influence wildfire dynamics(MacCarthy,Richter,Tyukavina,Weisse and Harris,2023).While wildfires play a crucial role in the ecosystems regeneration process,they also cause significant damage and have both direct and indirect econom
88、ic impacts.Globally,and in the Arab region,wildfire seasons have become longer.Over the past decade,several countries located in the Mediterranean Basin,including Algeria,Lebanon,Morocco,Syria,and Tunisia,have experienced a series of devastating forest fires(UNDP,2018).In Algeria,wildfires have burn
89、ed over 89 thousand hectares in 2021 across 35 states causing loss of plant cover and animal wealth(Algerie Presse Service,16|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|17 16|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Base
90、d Adaptation in the Arab RegionChapter 22021).In Morocco,wildfires in 2022 destroyed more than 4660 hectares of forests and woodlands in the northern parts of the country where 1320 families had to evacuate(Kebir,2022).Meanwhile in Lebanon,the forest area has decreased from 35 per cent in the 1960s
91、to 13 per cent in 2010 due to forest fires(Republic of Lebanon Ministry of Environment and University of Balamand,2010).Between 2020 and 2021,during summer heatwaves,fires affected hundreds of people in Lebanon and Syria,causing fatalities and displacement(Reuters,2021).1.3.6.Sand and dust stormsSan
92、d and dust storms(SDS)a natural phenomenon in the Arab region exacerbated by climate change have the potential to detrimentally affect public health,infrastructure,and agriculture,and even lead to fatalities and significant economic losses.Transboundary in nature,SDS can affect regions other than wh
93、ere they originated,which often happen to be dryland areas where vegetation cover is low and wind barriers are few(World Bank,2019).According to UNEP,dust storms contribute to annual GDP losses of USD 13 billion in the Middle East and North Africa region alone(UNEP,2016).In the Arab region,Bahrain,I
94、raq,Kuwait,Saudi Arabia,and Sudan are some of the most affected by SDS,facing severe consequences for public health and the environment.SDS are the main contributor to poor air quality in Arab countries(Osipov,Chowdhury,Crowley et al,2022).Consequently,the health sector is the most affected,where SD
95、S increase respiratory illnesses,particularly affecting vulnerable populations like those with chronic respiratory illnesses,children,and the elderly.They also harm visibility,causing transportation disruptions and accidents(Banerjee et al,2014;World Bank,2019).Climate change has contributed to an i
96、ncrease in the intensity and frequency of SDS,as well as changes in their historical patterns,through its impacts on precipitation,desertification,and droughts.For example,in Iraq,where SDS have been occurring unexpectedly outside the normal season,the number of days with SDS has significantly incre
97、ased,from 243 to 272 days per year over the past two decades(Chibani,2022).Land use and land cover changes are other major contributors to SDS(Chibani,2022).Ecosystems,Ecosystem Services and Ecosystem-based Adaptation2.1 IntroductionThe challenges posed by climate change in the Arab region are both
98、multifaceted and wide-ranging.As projections indicate an exacerbation of climate changes impacts in the future,developing adaptation solutions and implementing actions to respond to current and future impacts is urgently needed.This chapter aims to provide an overview of the various ecosystems and e
99、cosystem services in the region while examining the ways in which climate change affects them.Given the increasing importance of the nature-based approach to adaptation known as Nature-based Solutions or NbS in reducing the ramifications of climate change and safeguarding ecosystems and biodiversity
100、,this chapter will also explore the concept of EbA as an approach that harnesses nature-based solutions and ecosystem services,and highlight its alignment with multilateral environmental agreements and global agendas.2.2 Ecosystems and ecosystem servicesEcosystems are dynamic complexes of plants,ani
101、mals,and microorganisms interacting with their environment.Various studies and reports have used different ecosystem classifications;this publication is following the classification of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment(see Table 1).These ecosystems provide services known as ecosystem services,or n
102、atures contributions to people,and are defined as the“benefits that humans receive from the natural functioning of healthy ecosystems”(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,2005).The functioning of an ecosystem Mountain Ecosystem.Illustration by Ana Pastore and Omnia Moussa18|Guidelines for Urban Ecosyste
103、m-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|19 determines the supply of ecosystem services(United Nations Environment Programme,2021).Ecosystem services can be classified into four categories:1.Provisioning services:These involve ecosystems
104、 providing humans with resources essential for their well-being and basic needs e.g.food,water,minerals,shelter,biochemicals,and fuel.2.Regulating services:Ecosystems play a crucial role in maintaining environmental balance and providing regulation services to humans.These services include air quali
105、ty maintenance,climate regulation,water regulation,erosion control,water purification and waste treatment,regulation of human diseases,biological control,pollination,and storm protection.3.Cultural services:These are the non-physical benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichmen
106、t,cognitive development,reflection,recreation,and aesthetic pleasure,recreation,ecotourism,etc.For example,green spaces for hiking,walking,and ecotourism,and natural landscapes such as beaches and seascapes.4.Supporting services:Ecosystems support the sustainability and vitality of biodiversity,whic
107、h is essential for human well-being.They provide the necessary conditions and resources for the existence and continuity of biodiversity,such as soil formation and nutrient cycling.Supporting services encompass the fundamental functions required for the production of all other ecosystem services.Unl
108、ike provisioning,regulating,and cultural services,the effects of supporting services on people are often indirect,or manifest over an extended period of time.In contrast,changes in one of the other service categories have a more immediate and direct impact on individuals.The degradation and loss of
109、natural capital have significant adverse consequences and wide-ranging impacts on the environment,society,and the economy,making the conservation and sustainable management of such resources imperative.As natural capital deteriorates,the planet becomes more susceptible to the risk of severe events l
110、ike floods and droughts.This heightened vulnerability increases the likelihood of conflicts arising from competition over essential resources like food and water,and could result in the displacement and migration of huge populations.2.4 Impacts of climate change on ecosystems and ecosystem servicesT
111、he Arab region is home to rich and diverse ecosystems,including deserts,mountains,forests,fresh water,wetlands,marine,and coastal environments,as well as cultivated and urban ecosystems.As climate change continues to intensify,the delicate balance of ecosystems is disrupted,triggering a cascade of e
112、ffects on the services they offer and affecting human well-being,livelihoods,and the overall sustainability of our planet.Understanding and addressing the impacts of climate change on ecosystems and their services is crucial for devising effective strategies to mitigate and adapt to this complex and
113、 far-reaching environmental challenge.Table 1 displays the ecosystems of the Arab region(per the classification of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment)and highlights the impact of climate change on the services they provide and on cities and people.Table 1:The different ecosystems in the Arab region
114、 and how climate change impacts each ecosystems servicesEcosystem categories and examples from the Arab regionEcosystem servicesClimate change impactsHow they affect the ecosystem servicesImpact on cities and peopleMarineMarine ecosystems are found in all countries of the region,e.g.the Socotra Arch
115、ipelago in Yemen,which is a UNESCO World Heritage SiteProvisioning services:fisheries,building materialsRegulating services:carbon sequestration and storage,erosion prevention,wastewater treatment,moderation of extreme eventsCultural services:tourism;recreational,aesthetic,and spiritual benefitsSupp
116、orting services:Maintenance of life cycles for both marine fauna and local species,along with the cycling of elements and nutrientsSea level riseMarine heatwavesOcean acidificationBiodiversity lossAdverse impact on food provision,recreation,nutrient cycling,waste processing,protection from natural h
117、azards,and climate regulation,among other servicesThreats to human life Threats to land resourceA Map of the ecoregions of the Arab Region.Illustration by Omnia Moussa based on Ville Koistens adaptation of Dinerstein E.et al.An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm,BioSci
118、ence,Volume 67,Issue 6,June 2017,Pages 534545,https:/doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix014 Disclaimer:The map shown is for illustration purposes only and is not an exact representation.Arid desertxeric shrublandsemiarid desertdry steppe temperate steppemediterranean vegetationMontane forestsgrass savannatre
119、e savannatropical rainforestsubtropical and tropical dry forest20|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|21 Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Ecosystem categories and examples from
120、 the Arab regionEcosystem servicesClimate change impactsHow they affect the ecosystem servicesImpact on cities and peopleCoastal The Arab region has a total 224,000 km of coastline.Coastal cities in the region with a population exceeding 1 million inhabitants include Alexandria,Beirut,Dubai,Jeddah,A
121、bu Dhabi,Doha,Kuwait City,Gaza,Muscat and Tripoli Provisioning services:food,mangrove,fibre and waterRegulating services:regulation of climate;protection from coastal erosion,coral bleaching,pollution and diseaseCultural services:tourism;recreational,aesthetic,and spiritual benefitsSupporting servic
122、es:nutrient cycling and photosynthesisSea level riseFloodingCoastal erosion and saline intrusionIncreased storm surgesAdverse impact on food provision Loss of life,livelihood,infrastructure damage and/or destruction,and displacement Inland water(including rivers,lakes,floodplains,reservoirs,marshes,
123、and wetlands)e.g.the Mesopotamian Marshlands in Iraq and Lake Ichkeul in TunisiaProvisioning services:food,fresh water,fibre and fuel,biochemical products and genetic materialsRegulating services:water purification and regulation,pollination and seed dispersal,climate regulation(locally through vege
124、tation cover and globally through carbon sequestration)Cultural services:recreation and tourism;cultural identity and diversity;cultural landscapes and heritage;indigenous knowledge systems;spiritual,aesthetic,and inspirational servicesSupporting services:soil development(conservation,formation),pri
125、mary production and nutrient cyclingHabitat loss of freshwater species Longer and more severe periods of low water levelsChanges in rainfall patterns and cycles of floodingExtreme weather events,including extreme storms,that can erode riverbanks and wash sediments and pollution into rivers and wetla
126、ndsReductions in water availability,deteriorating water quality,adverse impacts on provision of food and other essentials,cultural and supporting servicesSocioeconomic impacts,land degradation,urban water insecurity,adversely impacted recreational activities,and reduced tourism and property valuesEc
127、osystem categories and examples from the Arab regionEcosystem servicesClimate change impactsHow they affect the ecosystem servicesImpact on cities and peopleForeste.g.the coniferous forests of LebanonProvisioning services:food,water,fibre,fuel,chemical and medicinal productsRegulating services:clima
128、te regulation,carbon storage,air and water purification,erosion protection,flood mitigation,and protection against coastal erosion and stormsCultural services:tourism;recreational,aesthetic,and spiritual benefitsSupporting services:habitats for flora and fauna,photosynthesis,soil formation,nutrient
129、cycling and pollinationWildfiresReduced carbon storagePest outbreaksAgricultural crop failures decrease the capacity of forests to sequester carbon;altered precipitation patterns and increased temperatures can lead to changes in the duration and amount of water available,degrade soil quality and red
130、uce the productivity of forest ecosystemsSocio-economic impacts,negative effects on human health caused by increased forest fires and decreased availability of medicinal plants,and increased vulnerability of forest-dependent populations relying on forests to meet their needs related to energy,food a
131、nd healthDryland Almost 90 per cent of the Arab regions area is considered arid,semi-arid,or dry subhumidProvisioning Services:food,fiber,forage,fuelwood,biochemicals and fresh waterRegulating services:water purification and regulation,pollination and seed dispersal,climate regulation(local through
132、vegetation cover and global through carbon sequestration)Cultural Services:recreation and tourism,cultural identity and diversity,cultural landscapes and heritage values,indigenous knowledge systems,spiritual,aesthetic,and inspirational servicesSupporting Services:soil development(conservation,forma
133、tion),primary production and nutrient cyclingDroughtDesertification and soil erosion due to increasing temperatures,reduced and more variable rainfall,and increasingly frequent and severe wind and sandstormsLand degradation(loss of productive land,soil erosion,and decreased vegetation cover)Increase
134、d aridity,prolonged droughts,and changes in precipitation patterns can lead to reduced vegetation cover and increased soil erosionDryland-dependent communities face increased vulnerability due to their reliance on rain-fed agriculture and livestock grazing as their primary sources of livelihood.The
135、effects of climate change are expected to exacerbate poverty,as well as increase the risks of food and water insecurity in drylands22|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|23 Ecosystem categories and examp
136、les from the Arab regionEcosystem servicesClimate change impactsHow they affect the ecosystem servicesImpact on cities and peopleIslande.g.the archipelago of Juzur Farasan in Saudi Arabia and the island of Socotra in YemenProvisioning Services:Food,raw material,genetic resources,medicinal resources
137、and habitatRegulating Services:Gas regulation,climate regulation,coastal protection,water regulation,water supply,soil retention,soil formation,nutrient regulation,waste regulation,pollination,and biological regulationCultural Services:Recreation and tourism,aesthetics,science and education,and spir
138、itual services Supporting Services:soil formation and nutrient cyclingLow-lying island systems are under threat from climate change and predicted sea level rise.These in turn are expected to have serious consequences on flooding,coastal erosion,water supply,food production,health,tourism,and habitat
139、 depletionRising sea levels and increased intensity of storms can degrade natural features like mangroves,coral reefs,and coastal vegetation,and disrupt their ability to provide protection against coastal erosion,storm surges,and floodingSea level rise would be devastating to millions of people livi
140、ng on low-lying islands and atolls.The projected changes in temperature and rainfall could disrupt terrestrial and marine ecosystems on most islands,especially small ones.Increased flooding and coastal erosion will have serious consequences for the tourism industryMountaine.g.the Atlas Mountains ext
141、ending across Northern Africa through Morocco,Algeria and TunisiaProvisioning services:Fresh water,food,fuel,fibre,timberRegulating services:climate regulation,water quantity and quality regulation,air quality regulation,natural hazard regulation,pest regulation,soil retention and pollinationCultura
142、l services:recreation and tourism;cultural identity and diversity;cultural landscapes and heritage;indigenous knowledge systems;spiritual,aesthetic,and inspirational servicesSupporting services:Soil formation and nutrient cyclingChanges in precipitationMore frequent wildfire weather Flooding and sed
143、imentation due to heavy rainfall;increased intensity and frequency of stormsDecrease in underground water levels Decrease in vegetation coverSoil erosion The increased risk of natural hazards,including landslides,avalanches,and flash floods triggered by climate change,poses a risk to human settlemen
144、ts,infrastructure,and livelihoods in mountainous areas.Vulnerable populations in mountainous areas may also face more poverty,food insecurity,and displacement due to climate change Ecosystem categories and examples from the Arab regionEcosystem servicesClimate change impactsHow they affect the ecosy
145、stem servicesImpact on cities and peopleCultivatede.g.oases with cultivated palm trees in Algeria and heat-resistant wheat varieties in Tafilalt in MoroccoProvisioning services:Food,fibre,and fuel production Regulating services:Soil retention,pollination,natural control of plant pests,food source an
146、d habitat for beneficial insects,water purification and atmospheric regulationCultural services:Aesthetic landscapesSupporting services:Soil structure and fertility,nutrient recycling,water provision and genetic biodiversity DroughtSoil erosion and salinization due to rising temperatures,low rainfal
147、l levels and sea level riseCrop damage and shifts in cropping systems and crop diversityDelays in agriculture calendarWater scarcityAlterations in nutrient cycling dynamicsEconomic lossesFood shortages,increased food prices,and food insecurity for both rural and urban populations reliant on cultivat
148、ed ecosystems for their food supplyReduced crop productivity and income losses,that can affect the livelihoods of farmersUrban(Built environments with high population densities)Regulating services:Food and water supplyRegulating services:Urban temperature regulation,air purification,moderation of cl
149、imate extremes,runoff mitigation,waste treatment,pollination,pest regulation and seed dispersal,and global climate regulation Cultural services:Recreation,aesthetic pleasure,cognitive enrichment,architectural heritage,and socialization venuesSupporting services:Habitat for biodiversity Increased occ
150、urrences of floods and soil erosion due to intense rainfall and more frequent and severe storms;increased vulnerability to heat Rising temperatures,heatwaves,and changes in precipitation patterns can reduce the cooling effect of vegetation and exacerbate the urban heat island effect,as well as air p
151、ollution,and can lead to urban water scarcity Significant loss of life and property,damage to infrastructure,direct and indirect impacts on public healthSources:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,2005;UNEP,2021;UNESCO,2021;United Nations,2018;FAO,2014;IUCN,2010Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adapt
152、ation in the Arab Region|25 24|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region2.5 Nature-based Solutions and Ecosystem-based ApproachesIn 2022,the Fifth Session of United Nations Environment Assembly adopted the definition of Nature-based Solutions(NbS)as“actions to protect,conser
153、ve,restore,sustainably use and manage ecosystems”(United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP 2022).These actions address various societal and environmental challenges such as climate change,food security,water security,and natural disasters,while promoting human well-being and biodiversity protection
154、.For example,creating urban parks can help mitigate the heat island effect,while urban wetlands alleviate the negative consequences of flooding,provide spaces for recreational activities,enhance air quality,and improve the economic value of nearby property(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
155、Development(OECD 2020).NbS represent a comprehensive concept that has given rise to several interventions that can be implemented simultaneously.As shown in Figure 3,these include:Ecosystem-based Adaptation(EbA)solutions:These focus on utilizing biodiversity and ecosystems to help people adapt to cl
156、imate change as part of a comprehensive adaptation strategy.Ecosystem-based mitigation solutions:These focus on preserving natural environments and implementing management strategies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions from ecosystems while enhancing their carbon sequestration capacity.Ecosystem-ba
157、sed disaster risk reduction:This approach aims to address all types of disaster risks,and is not limited to those associated with climate change.Blue and green infrastructure:This refers to a network of natural and semi-natural areas intentionally designed and managed to provide a wide range of ecos
158、ystem services,such as water purification,air quality improvement,and adaptation to climate change.Ecosystem-based Adaptation(EbA)refers to the incorporation of biodiversity and ecosystem services into a comprehensive Natural CapitalEcosystem-based Disaster Risk ReductionBlue and Green Infrastructur
159、eNature-based Solutions(NbS)Ecosystem-based Adaptation(EbA)Ecosystem-based MitigationPlanetary resources(such as plants,animals,air,water,soil,and minerals)that preserve life and well-being.An umbrella term encompassing actions aimed at protecting,managing,and restoring natural capital in ways that
160、effectively and adaptably address various societal challenges.Using biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of a comprehensive adaptation strategy to help people adapt to the adverse effects of climate change.Making use of ecosystems and biodiversity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.Managing e
161、cosystems for disaster risk reductionA network of natural and semi-natural areas,designed and managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services.Figure 3:Nature-based Solutions and how they contribute to preserving,enhancing and utilizing natural capital(modified based on Browder et al,2019)adapt
162、ation strategy.Its goal is to assist people in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change.Accordingly,its primary objective is to enhance the resilience of ecosystems,decrease the vulnerability of both ecosystems and individuals,and address the negative impacts of climate change(Lo,2016).Some
163、 of the applicable methodologies within the framework of EbA include:Ecosystem restoration approaches:ecological restoration,environmental engineering,and forest landscape development Infrastructure-related approaches:utilization of natural infrastructure and the adoption of a blue/green infrastruct
164、ure approach Ecosystem-based management approaches:integrated coastal area management and integrated water resources or water estuaries management Ecosystem protection approaches:this refers to the area protection methodology,including watershed management and protected area managementFigure 4 illus
165、trates the interconnected roles of ecosystems in climate change adaptation and mitigation,and visualizes the dual benefits of EbA for individuals and the environment in combating climate change.Negative climate impacts are depicted in black,while positive impacts are shown in green.Effective ecosyst
166、em responses to climate change rely on an integrated approach that maximizes synergistic benefits while minimizing potential harms.Figure 4:The role of ecosystems in climate change adaptation and mitigation(Morecroft et al,2019)26|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGui
167、delines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|27 2.6 Rationale for EbAEcosystems and human societies are interdependent,and ecosystems can play a pivotal role in managing the escalating risks posed by climate change.EbA is a promising approach that uses the power of nature and natu
168、ral ecosystems to adapt to the impacts of climate change.It was first officially defined as“the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change,”with the aim of maintaining and increasing the resili
169、ence and reducing the vulnerability of ecosystems and people against the impacts of climate change(Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity,2009).The four essential components of EbA include harnessing biodiversity and ecosystem services with the purpose of helping people so that they c
170、an adapt to climate change within a broader adaptation framework(UNEP-WCMC and UNEP,2019).EbA works with the following core principles:1.Harnessing natural services:EbA leverages the natural abilities of ecosystems to provide protection,regulation,and resilience against climate change impacts.This c
171、an include using mangroves for coastal protection,restoring forests for flood control,and promoting wetlands for water purification.2.Community-based approach:EbA emphasizes engaging local communities in the design and implementation of solutions,ensuring they are culturally appropriate,sustainable,
172、and meet their specific needs.3.Holistic perspective:This approach recognizes the interconnectedness of ecosystems and their services,and aims to address multiple challenges like climate change adaptation,biodiversity conservation,and economic development simultaneously.The concept of EbA is among s
173、everal others that promote the conservation,wise use,and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystems as a means of climate change adaptation based on the assessment of risks and vulnerabilities of a socioecological system.However,the EbA approach is unique in that it sees both people and ecosystems a
174、s equally important assets to safeguard(CBD,2018).EbA provides several benefits by serving as a cost-effective approach that relies on ecosystems natural dynamics to address the impacts of climate change,making it ideal to experiment with in situations where limited funds are available for the imple
175、mentation of costly,large-scale,grey infrastructure.Unlike some complex infrastructure,natural solutions are less prone to degradation over time and can adapt to changing conditions.Additionally,EbA can be coupled with grey infrastructure,helping prolong the lifetime of engineered interventions(CBD,
176、2018).EbA can address multiple challenges simultaneously,providing social,economic and cultural co-benefits for local communities as well as for biodiversity and climate mitigation.Some of these co-benefits include:enhanced quality of life,health and well-being of urban dwellers;better access to foo
177、d and water;economic returns through the generation of green jobs;higher land value associated with better aesthetics;ecosystem and biodiversity restoration;better air quality;less energy consumption;reduced UHI effect;and opportunities for recreation and tourism,among others.Furthermore,EbAs implem
178、entation necessitates the engagement of local communities,thereby helping to conserve traditional knowledge and practices as well as foster ownership and responsibility for the long-term sustainability of solutions(Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity,2009;GIZ,2022).Box 2:Dune-formi
179、ng reed fences to combat sea-level rise in the Nile Delta,Egypt The Nile Delta in Egypt,a region with 18 million inhabitants,is a significant wetland region that provides crucial environmental,social,and economic services.The Delta region,latitudinally spanning 160 kilometres with a coastline spanni
180、ng approximately 270 kilometres,is one of the worlds most vulnerable areas to climate change impacts,especially SLR.Moreover,the region is experiencing sinking due to different factors,including SLR,neo-tectonic lowering,sediment compaction,and reduced sediment regeneration caused by upriver dam con
181、struction.This persistent submergence has far-reaching consequences,as the majority of Egypts population resides in the Nile Delta and Valley region.Infrastructure,cultural heritage sites,and economic and agricultural activities are also at significant risk.Additionally,the continuous loss of arable
182、 land,and decline in freshwater availability due to the transformation of the region into saline arid land,are clear indications of the negative impacts of climate change.Farmers are being forced to abandon their land or resort to importing sand to mitigate the effects of Location:Nile Delta,EgyptEx
183、isting Ecosystems:Agricultural land,wetlands,coastal ecosystems,and urban ecosystemsClimate Change Challenges:SLR causing soil erosion,salinization,loss of agricultural land,and flooding of wetlandsImplemented EbA Approach:Coastal protection using dune-forming fences to safeguard against SLR and flo
184、odingFigure 6:Sketch of the dune-forming reed fences Credit:Alik Mikaelian,UNDP,2022 Figure 5:Map of Nile Delta and Norh coast of Egypt28|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|29 SLR.Therefore,without meas
185、ures to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change,it is projected that the Nile Delta will face severe water scarcity,leading to massive food shortages and potentially displacing 7 million people as climate migrants/refugees by 2100.1 Sources:Mikaelian,A.(2022,July 31).Learning from local ingen
186、uity how simple reed fencing has unlocked a solution to rising sea levels in Egypt.Retrieved from United Nations Development Programme:https:/www.undp.org/egypt/blog/learning-local-ingenuity-how-simple-reed-fencing-has-unlocked-solution-rising-sea-levels-egypt -Stanley,J.D.,&Clemente,P.(2017).Increa
187、sed Land Subsidence and Sea-Level Rise Are Submerging Egypts Nile Delta Coastal Margin.Gsa Today,4-11.-UNDP.(2021,June 13).Protecting the Nile Delta.Retrieved from United Nations in Egypt:https:/egypt.un.org/en/131231-protecting-nile-delta -UNDP Egypt.(2017,November 2).Enhancing climate change adapt
188、ation in the north coast and Nile delta regions in Egypt.Retrieved from Green Climate Fund:https:/www.greenclimate.fund/document/enhancing-climate-change-adaptation-north-coast-and-nile-delta-regions-egypt#-UNESCO.(2021).UNESCO DRR Atlas.Retrieved from UNESCO DRR Atlas:https:/unesco-arab- EbA projec
189、t is being implemented to protect 69 kilometres along the coastline in five hotspots in the Delta region.The project employs a solution that has been used by indigenous communities in the region for many years,which is installing dune-forming fences in specific locations.These fences,made from reed,
190、a locally sourced natural material,are strategically placed in the direction of prevailing winds to capture and stabilize blown sand,and naturally form dunes that increase resilience to saltwater intrusion,erosion,storm surges and tsunami waves(UNESCO,2021).At only a 10 per cent completion stage,the
191、 dikes were able to block an unexpected sea surge in 2020.The project is part of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management(ICZM)plan that aims at making the areas economic,social and agricultural activities climate-resilient.The engagement of different stakeholders,including local farming and fishing co
192、mmunities,coast guards,research centres,and government entities,contributed to the success,ownership,and sustainability of the project.1Figure 7:Dune-forming reed fences in Nile Delta.Credit:Alik Mikaelian,UNDP,20222.7 Ecosystem-based Adaptation in multilateral environmental agreements and global ag
193、endasThe importance of ecosystems and ecosystem services has been emphasized in several Multilateral Environmental Agreements(MEAs)such as the Convention on Biological Diversity,the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction(SFDRR)(2015-2030),and the Paris Agreement of the United Nations Framework
194、 Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC).Other multilateral environmental conventions reflect the interconnectedness between ecosystem management,climate change,and disaster risk reduction.In recent years,all global and regional commitments,including the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,the Pari
195、s Agreement,and the SFDRR,have called for 1)accelerating sustainability,2)enhancing human development resilience through adaptation and disaster risk management programs,and 3)providing entry points for the broader implementation of EbA and disaster management approaches(Convention on Biological Div
196、ersity,2018).In light of these multilateral agreements,the term“urban biodiversity”has emerged,which refers to the diversity and richness of living organisms(including genetic diversity)and habitats found within and on the fringes of human settlements.It includes:1.Remnants of natural landscapes(suc
197、h as remnant forests);2.Traditional agricultural landscapes(such as meadows,arable land and areas suitable for cultivation);3.Urban and industrial landscapes(such as city centres,residential areas,industrial complexes,railway areas,parks,and recreational spaces and gardens).Utilizing EbA contributes
198、 to the achievement of several Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs),as they play a crucial role in promoting sustainability across various sectors,including agriculture,forestry,energy,and water.EbA also contributes to social justice,education,and livelihood diversification.EbA initiatives can direct
199、ly contribute to the achievement of the following SDGs:Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|31 30|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionThe New Urban Agenda,adopted worldwide in 2016,serves as a collective vision for a more sustainable and im
200、proved future.It sets forth guidelines and principles for the planning,construction,development,management,and enhancement of urban areas.The issue of environmental sustainability,including ecosystem and biodiversity protection,is a fundamental consideration within the framework of the New Urban Age
201、nda,which advocates for the development of cities that prioritize the safeguarding,preservation,restoration,and enhancement of their ecosystems,water systems,natural habitats,and biodiversity.The New Urban Agenda comprehensively addresses urban adaptation and resilience from various angles,encouragi
202、ng urban actors to integrate EbA into adaptation plans,policies,programs,and actions to enhance the resilience of urban populations.To address the potential impacts of uncontrolled rapid urbanization on ecosystems,the New Urban Agenda handbook introduces various design tools and strategies that can
203、be utilized to incorporate natural elements into the plans of built environments and cities.The aim is to establish a healthy and sustainable urban environment that preserves the ecosystems that foster biodiversity both within the city and its surroundings.These tools and strategies include green sp
204、aces,wetlands reconstruction and river-side vegetation,all of which aim to mainstream the principle of“designing with nature.”Location:Bekaa Valley,Lebanon Existing Ecosystems:Cultivated Ecosystem Climate Change Challenges:High temperatures and droughtImplemented EbA Approach:Hydroponic farming and
205、drought early warning system(Eco-DRR)Drought will continue to negatively affect agriculture and water resources in Lebanon.Projections of future climate scenarios indicate a continued rise in aridity,accompanied by heightened severity and frequency of droughts,particularly in central Lebanon.The agr
206、icultural sector will bear the brunt of these extreme conditions,resulting in a decrease in crop production and adversely impacting farmers livelihoods.The Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute(LARI)has created weather forecasting facilities and developed a nationwide drought management system fo
207、r Lebanese farmers.Throughout the years,LARI has established various means of communication with farmers,beginning with text messages as a means of communication in 2008.In 2015,LARI introduced a smartphone application to serve as a comprehensive platform for sharing information including weather fo
208、recasts,alerts regarding extreme weather conditions,vital updates on agricultural practices,efficient irrigation techniques,and guidance on pest and disease management.Various programmes were introduced to mitigate the negative impacts of drought in Lebanon,including the establishment of the drought
209、 early warning system,which is currently being managed by LARI.This system aims to provide daily climate predictions and identify the most vulnerable areas,enabling the implementation of EbA programmes such as water harvesting and hydroponic agriculture.These initiatives play a crucial role in ensur
210、ing the sustainability of farmers and positively contributing to their long-term viability.2 Sources:Verner D.,Ashwill M.,Christensen J.,McDonnell R.,Redwood J.,Jomaa I.,Saade M.,Massad R.,Chehade A.,Bitar A.,Treguer D.,Droughts and agriculture in Lebanon:Causes,consequences,and risk management.Worl
211、d Bank group,Lebanon;http:/docurnents.worldbank.org/curated/en/892381538415122088/pdf/l 30405-WP-Pl60212-Lebanon-WEB.pdf,accessed online 01 March 2023 UNESCO.(2021).UNESCO DRR Atlas.Retrieved from UNESCO DRR Atlas:https:/unesco-arab- Soil-free techniques were also introduced,such as urban hydroponic
212、s,in small and fragmented land and between refugee communities lacking agricultural land and food security.Hydroponic agriculture is a soil-less method of growing plants in a water-based,nutrient-rich solution.2Box 3:Drought early warning system in Lebanon to support long-term drought risk managemen
213、t Figure 9:Example of hydroponic agriculture in Lebanon Credits Georges Abi Sleiman 2024Figure 8:Map of Bekaa Valley in Lebanon32|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|33 Chapter 33.1 IntroductionEcosystem
214、-based adaptation is increasingly recognized as a practical approach to addressing the challenges of climate change in the Arab region.With its unique blend of arid,semi-arid,and coastal ecosystems,the Arab region faces many climate-related risks,including water scarcity,desertification,loss of biod
215、iversity,and extreme weather events.Ecosystems such as forests,wetlands,coastal areas,and agricultural landscapes play critical roles in providing essential services supporting the livelihoods and well-being of millions across the region.By integrating ecosystem management and conservation into adap
216、tation strategies,EbA aims to enhance the resilience of both ecosystems and human communities to climate change impacts.Through preservation,restoration,and sustainable management of natural habitats,EbA initiatives in the Arab region offer promising pathways to mitigate the adverse effects of clima
217、te change while promoting sustainable development and safeguarding ecosystem services for future generations.3.2 Implementing EbA in Urban AreasAdapting to climate change is imperative across all areas.Urban settlements face distinctive challenges,especially those related to the UHI effect,where cit
218、ies have higher temperatures due to reduced vegetation and increased built infrastructure.Paved surfaces increase runoff,leading to flash floods and overwhelmed drainage systems.In addition,urban populations put pressure on water resources,and climate change can exacerbate this strain.The effects of
219、 traffic and industrial activities,which contribute to poor air quality and adversely impact public health,are further amplified.Urbanization also often leads to habitat loss and decline in species diversity.EbA provides several solutions in urban areas,including the implementation of urban green in
220、frastructure such as parks,green roofs,bioswales,and street trees that can cool the city,manage stormwater,filter air pollution,and provide habitat for birds and insects.Urban agriculture is another solution,especially using rooftop and community gardens,which can increase food production,improve fo
221、od security,and reduce reliance on long-distance transport.Sustainable water management through rainwater harvesting,green roofs,and permeable paving can reduce demand for freshwater,and mitigate flooding.For coastal areas,mangrove restoration Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Urban AreasGuidelines for
222、Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|35 Wadi Hanifa Wetlands.Illustration by Omnia Moussa based on photo whose credits belong to Aga Khan Award for Architecture/Arriyadh Development Authority34|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Regionand living shorelines can
223、 provide natural buffers against storm surges and rising sea levels.Protecting and expanding existing urban forests and creating new ones can cool the city,improve air quality,and provide recreational opportunities.Urban wetlands can also filter and capture floodwater,abate UHI effect,replenish grou
224、ndwater while simultaneously improving air quality,and provide green spaces.These solutions can increase the resilience of cities,improve health and well-being,enhance social cohesion,and strengthen economic benefits and biodiversity conservation.Table 2:Examples of Ecosystem-based Adaptation approa
225、ches that can be applied in urban areas in the Arab regionExisting urban challenges EbA approach Floods soil erosion Poor air quality Lack of shade Reforestation in urban areas,including:Streets Green belts Nurseries Groves UHIs and heat stress Drought Poor air quality lack of shadeCreating green sp
226、aces:Parks Conservation areas Stream restoration Public gardens Groves Floods Transportation disruption due to extreme weather eventsFlood risk management:Well-designed,dedicated lanes for pedestrians and vehicles Community gardens Playgrounds Floods DroughtRainwater harvesting:Greywater supply Surf
227、ace run-off redirection Urban gardens Drought Floods Land subsidencePermeable sidewalks:Recharge aquifer and water storage Diversion of run-off Safety of pathways Inefficient water and sanitation systemsWater purification:Urban gardens Artificial wetlands Biodiversity loss Poor water qualityNature c
228、onnecting corridors:Conservation areas Habitats for birds and plants Community gardens Urban canyons and high urban densities Air pollution Urban food insecurityPeople-centered urban design and planning:Sustainable land management Green space planning Sustainable urban food productionTo effectively
229、address the challenges of climate change,EbA needs to be integrated into adaptation strategies.In addition to the growing need to manage and restore ecosystems,cities need to prioritize building their resilience to adapt to the escalating impacts of climate change to protect their populations and sa
230、feguard their infrastructure.Infrastructure resilience plays a crucial role in withstanding anticipated future climate change impacts.A wide range of measures can be implemented to achieve this,including raising the height of bridges and road surfaces to withstand rising sea levels and urban floodin
231、g in coastal areas,increasing the capacity of drainage systems and sewage infrastructure to accommodate higher rainfall rates and urban flooding,using climate-resistant materials for roads,and implementing wind protection initiatives.It is also important to consider relocating communities away from
232、hazardous areas prone to floods and flash floods,elevating electrical equipment and control devices,and utilizing,enhancing,or restoring natural or semi-natural systems such as wetlands,plants along river channels,or vegetative cover on sand dunes to safeguard vital infrastructure.Additionally,emplo
233、ying environmentally safe road engineering techniques that utilize plants on slopes to protect roads,especially in mountain areas,and utilizing physical protection measures like seawalls or dams to safeguard against flooding are essential strategies.Location:Riyadh,Saudi ArabiaExisting Ecosystems:Wa
234、tersheds,drylands,and urban ecosystemsClimate Change Challenges:seasonal flooding,and soil erosion.Implemented EbA Approach:Valley rehabilitation including natural flood management,afforestation,open parks creation,and wastewater bioremediationSource:United Nations Environment Programme,2021Box 4:A
235、comprehensive development plan for the rehabilitation of Wadi Hanifah,Saudi ArabiaFigure 11:Map of Wadi Hanifa in Saudi ArabiaFigure 10:The flood performance of the channel is improved by reprofiling and regrading Credit:Aga Khan Award for Architecture/Arriyadh Development Authority36|Guidelines for
236、 Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|37 Running through the rapidly urbanizing city of Riyadh is the 120km-long watershed called Wadi Hanifah,or Hanifah valley.It has an area of 4500m2 with several tributaries and smal
237、ler valleys.Between the 1960s and the 1990s,the valleys natural resources,including natural stones and ground water,were overexploited and polluted while the valley was being used as a waste site.In response to the extreme deterioration,the Royal Commission for Riyadh City(RCRC)launched and implemen
238、ted the Comprehensive Development Plan for Wadi Hanifah(CDPWH)between 2001 and 2010 to rehabilitate and restore the valley.The CDPWH rehabilitated Wadi Hanifah to serve as a natural drainage system for Riyadh city while also functioning as a leisure park for city residents and a sustainable water su
239、pply through wastewater bioremediation.The CDPWH worked through two components:the Wadi Hanifah Restoration Project(immediate actions)and the Wadi Hanifah Development Programme(long-term actions).The immediate actions focused on stopping harmful activities and assessing flood performance and water q
240、uality,while the long-term actions focused on environmental rehabilitation and the cleaning of polluted sites,renaturing,protecting ecologically valuable sites and developing recreational spaces.Through the second component,nine major public parks have been implemented along the valleys riverbed.The
241、 parks,which attract over 200,000 visitors per week,were designed to suit Saudi culture,integrating outdoor family“privacy rooms”,3 Sources:Buro Happold.(n.d.).Wadi Hanifah Flood Management Plan.Retrieved from Buro Happold-Integrated Consulting Engineers and Advisers:https:/ Commision for Riyadh Cit
242、y.(n.d.).Environmental Rehabilitation Program for Wadi Hanifa and its Tributaries.Retrieved from Royal Commision for Riyadh City:https:/www.rcrc.gov.sa/en/projects/wadi-hanifah Trottier,J.,&Eidick,K.(2015).Wadi Hanifah Comprehensive Development Plan|Landscape Performance Series.doi:https:/doi.org/10
243、.31353/cs1040recreational trails,adequate parking and sanitary facilities.With local materials and plant species in mind,limestone blocks were used for structures and aggregates for recreational trails in the parks,while 35 different types of native plants were brought from areas that were least pol
244、luted and reintroduced throughout the valley grounds.Using urban wastewater bioremediation,92.5 million gallons of potable water were saved per day for park amenities and irrigation.The project successfully linked ecological and social benefits,which increased public awareness and support for the pr
245、oject.33.3 Integrating EbA into urban development planningDevelopment refers to actions directed towards enhancing and maintaining human welfare,encompassing social,economic,and environmental dimensions and objectives such as economic growth,poverty alleviation,infrastructure development,efficient e
246、nergy utilization,and adaptation to climate change.Development goals and plans could be achieved by safeguarding ecosystem services that contribute to the well-being and livelihoods of human communities.As discussed in previous sections,urban areas could benefit greatly from the integration of EbA i
247、nto climate action and planning processes.Given the complexity of the challenges faced by cities and the multitude of stakeholders involved in ecosystem upkeeping and maintenance,the key question remains how EbA can be effectively incorporated into planning for climate adaptation and disaster risk r
248、eduction as well as decision-making processes in urban areas.The following entry points serve as drivers and enablers for mainstreaming EbA in urban areas:Stakeholders awareness of the challenges and risks posed by climate change to the urban environment as well as solutions,proposals,tools and know
249、ledge available to address these challenges;political will to adopt an EbA approach in urban areas;clarity on responsibilities and roles of stakeholders.Furthermore,the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)identifies the following eight steps as actions and entry points for integrating EbA into
250、 National Adaptation Plans(Secretariat of CBD,2019,p.50;UNDP-UNEP,2015).These steps can also be reconfigured for adaptation and resilience planning at the local level.Figure 7 below outlines the steps involved in a comprehensive integration of EbA into development planning for urban settlements.3.3.
251、1 Climate risk and vulnerability assessmentThe first step in integrating EbA into development planning is to carry out a climate risk and vulnerability assessment for the urban environment in question.This step involves the identification of climate change hazards,and assessing their economic,social
252、,sectoral,and cross-sectoral impacts on the study area.The assessment process may involve a wide range of inputs from various sources and assessments,including insights obtained through the formulation of modelled and analysed indicators,trend data analysis,and risk modelling or simulation,as well a
253、s inputs of experts from the urban and environmental planning fields.To develop a realistic assessment,the four steps listed below should be followed(for more details Figure 14:Steps to integrate EbA into development planning at the different levels.Adaptation based on United Nations Environment Pro
254、gramme,2021Figure 12:Water filtration facility in Wadi Hanifa Credit:Aga Khan Award for Architecture/Arriyadh Development AuthorityFigure 13:Walking trails and family compartments in the form of semi-enclosed areas along the wadi Credit:Aga Khan Award for Architecture/Arriyadh Development Authority3
255、8|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|39 about conducting climate risk and vulnerability assessment in urban areas,see Annex 1):Step 1:Climate hazard assessment:developing projections(models)of climate-r
256、elated risks to the urban environment Step 2:Vulnerability assessment:conducting climate risk assessment,including sensitivity,exposure,and adaptive capacity Step 3:Analysis of results:Understanding the economic,social,sectoral,and cross-sectoral impacts of climate change Step 4:Communication of res
257、ults and recommendations to decision-makers 3.3.2 Stakeholder engagementA stakeholder is defined as an institution or individual who could be positively or negatively affected by a specific project or programme,and could have a direct or indirect impact on it during its different stages of developme
258、nt.An important and necessary step in implementing EbA options is understanding the stakeholders,their responsibilities,and the expected roles each of them will play in implementing the various options that will be proposed.Therefore,it is advisable to follow these steps to understand the stakeholde
259、rs:Stakeholder Mapping:It is very important to map and identify all relevant stakeholders and at which stage of the process they could contribute(design,implementation,monitoring and evaluation)Capacity-Building:This is a crucial stage that should include an assessment of capacity needs to determine
260、 stakeholders training and development requirements,followed by the development of a workplan to conduct the identified capacity-building programs.Some important programmes that could be delivered to stakeholders according to their capacity needs that would enable them to successfully carry out urba
261、n EbA initiatives include:(a)climate risk assessment;(b)assessment of the climate change vulnerability of environmental and urban systems;(c)assessment of ecosystem services,and(d)institutional enabling environment for EbA Stakeholder Engagement:For successfully planning and ensuring the effectivene
262、ss of EbA initiatives in the urban environment,stakeholders must be engaged at all stages of the project,starting from design,through implementation,and to monitoring and evaluation,at the different levels3.3.3 Identification of EbA options and prioritiesOnce the vulnerability assessment is complete
263、 and both the climate change risks and the stakeholders have been identified,the next step is to start identifying EbA options that would reduce the severity of the identified climate change risks for the study area.These options depend on the nature of the site,the extent of ecosystem degradation,a
264、nd the extent to which humans are affected by climate change.Decision-makers can rely on several criteria to determine suitable EbA options,and use the set of questions listed below.The following questions could help determine the appropriate options,such as whether a hybrid option between grey and
265、green urban environments may be the optimal arrangement.Can the EbA option be implemented within a desired timeframe,or does it require long periods?Does the local community have the necessary capacity to implement the EbA option,or is it necessary to bring in external experts?Are the operational an
266、d maintenance requirements more challenging(or more costly)than alternative infrastructure approaches?Are EbA measures effective in adapting to the long-term impacts of climate change,or are they likely to be effective only in the short term?Is it possible to develop a pilot to measure the effective
267、ness of EbA measures without incurring significant costs?Has a similar EbA approach been adopted elsewhere(nationally,regionally,or globally)and proven to be superior to the infrastructure approach in this context?Are the co-benefits significant enough to outweigh the direct benefits of the alternat
268、ive infrastructure option?Once the necessary criteria for understanding urban EbA options are determined,it is important to start identifying these options.Another important question to ask,which would help in the identification of appropriate EbA options,concerns the main priority of the approach.E
269、bA initiatives can be classified according to the main priority of the project into the following three categories:Capacity-building or resilience-building initiatives;Initiatives that reduce exposure to the risks of climate change;Initiatives that aim to create employment opportunities while simult
270、aneously reducing climate risks and minimizing exposure to their impacts.3.3.4 Designing adaptation optionsAfter identifying adaptation options and understanding the priorities,the next step would be to design the adaptation options,through analysis of the options followed by the project design of t
271、he selected approach.Several tools can be used to analyse EbA options and determine priorities,including:Multi-criteria analysis:This analysis is based on qualitative information that allows the classification of EbA options according to predetermined criteria.It requires the participation of all re
272、levant stakeholders during the planning process to define the criteria.The criteria that should be used to evaluate EbA options include:Potential for reducing risks associated with current and future climate hazards and changes Potential for improving peoples capacity to adapt to climate change Pote
273、ntial for generating benefits for vulnerable social groups and promoting gender equality Sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services to build resilience Enhancement of ecosystem resilience to current and future climate hazards and changes Cost-benefit analysis:This analysis relies on quan
274、titative information to estimate and compare the costs and benefits of EbA options.It provides information on which specific measures generate the greatest direct and indirect benefits related to climate risk reduction.Criteria that can be considered during a cost-benefit analysis include:Cost affor
275、dability.Technical feasibility Political feasibility40|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|41 Maintenance costs and availability of skilled labour for maintenance Monitoring feasibility Resilience Number
276、 of beneficiaries Cultural suitabilityThe International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN)has developed guided forms that could also be used to prioritize and design EbA options through EbA qualification criteria analysis and quality standard assessment of the measure.More details on the forms c
277、an be found in Annex 1.3.3.5 Raising awareness and knowledgeBased on the discussion and analyses carried out during the stakeholder engagement phase,a component for raising awareness and knowledge-sharing should be developed.The activities involved in this component would target relevant stakeholder
278、s and disseminate knowledge on key topics like ecosystem services and the value of nature,climate change and its risks,adaptation measures like EbA,and the role and responsibilities of each stakeholder.This step is crucial for the success and sustainability of the EbA approach as it will pave the wa
279、y for community acceptance and upkeep of the implemented measure,building on the sense of awareness and ownership of the recipients.3.3.6 Resource mobilization for EbA initiativesOne of the key steps in implementing EbA programmes is identifying funding opportunities and mobilizing financial resourc
280、es at the local and international levels,as well as seeking out private sector investments for these programmes.The following subsections provide some guidelines related to funding at the local and international levels,as well as from the private sector.3.3.6.1 Local fundingFunding measures for disa
281、ster risk reduction and EbA require long-term planning to achieve the desired adaptation benefits as well as the social,economic,and environmental co-benefits(GIZ,CMP,2020).Local public funding can serve as a stable and predictable funding source depending on national economic conditions,priorities,
282、and the need for implementing such initiatives.One of the easiest ways to prioritize climate change budgets is by increasing allocations for climate-related initiatives within ministries.The following list provides recommendations to help address key issues related to funding for EbA programmes and
283、integrating them into climate-resilient development planning tools:Assess the benefits of disaster risk reduction,climate adaptation,and the co-benefits of habitat restoration and conservation to facilitate channelling of funds towards implementing EbA initiatives Strategically plan at the municipal
284、 level for disaster risk reduction,health,food security,infrastructure,and allocate budgets to implement EbA programmes to address these challenges Incorporate priorities of EbA programmes into national plans,such as regional development plans,provincial development plans,or local climate action pla
285、ns Enhance the role and effective participation of environmental ministries in collaboration with the key ministries responsible for budget development,such as the ministries of finance and economy,to:Establish specific budget lines for EbA programmes within annual general budgets.Direct public inve
286、stment towards supporting biodiversity protection and ecosystem programs.Promote public investment to transition from traditional grey infrastructure to measures related to EbA programs,including green urban infrastructure.Develop innovative financial tools such as reward/compensation mechanisms or
287、payment for ecosystem services models for community initiatives implementing EbA.Develop local financing mechanisms to expedite climate change adaptation measures,such as national environmental funds.These funds can be jointly financed by governments and donors through financial instruments such as
288、taxes,fees,and bonds.3.3.6.2 International fundingInternational climate finance consists of bilateral and multilateral funding mechanisms.The major sources of multilateral climate finance can be divided into two categories:those associated with the UNFCCC and those not associated with it.Table 3 pro
289、vides an overview of these sources.Table 3:Sources of multilateral climate financeSources of climate finance associated with the UNFCCCGlobal Environmental Facility(GEF),which includes:Special Climate Change Fund Least Developed Countries FundGreen Climate Fund(GCF)Adaptation Fund(AF)Clean Developme
290、nt MechanismJoint Implementation MechanismClimate Investment FundSources of climate finance not associated with the UNFCCCWorld Bank Group,including:Clean Technology Fund Forest Investment Program Pilot Program for Resilience Scaling up RE ProgramGlobal Fund for Disaster ReductionGlobal Climate Chan
291、ge Alliance The International Climate InitiativeNordic Climate Facility 3.3.7 Implementation of prioritized EbA option(s)Effective implementation of prioritized EbA option(s)involves following a clearly designed project plan that builds and ensures the mobilization and employment of resources and ca
292、pacities of individuals and organisations for a successful EbA initiative.To achieve this,a strategic action plan needs to address several elements,including clear objectives and outputs,well-defined responsibilities,roles,and relationships,and provision of human and financial resources.42|Guideline
293、s for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|43 3.3.8 Monitoring and evaluationMonitoring and evaluation(M&E)are vital for understanding the progress of a project in achieving its initial objectives and identifying uncert
294、ainties,gaps,and barriers that hinder progress in both the short and long term.M&E should be implemented during the lifespan of EbA projects and beyond.It enables policymakers,planners,and practitioners to improve adaptation measures by adjusting processes and objectives to ensure the realization of
295、 benefits over time.The importance of M&E stems from its ability to:Provide valuable evidence to support learning about what works in EbA;Enhance future investment by demonstrating cost-effectiveness;and Stimulate stakeholder participation in participatory monitoring.There are some considerations to
296、 keep in mind when designing an effective M&E process for an EbA initiative,including:Establishing clear objectives as a first step in developing an effective M&E system.These objectives may address issues such as improving ecosystem functions or services,with the additional goal of reducing populat
297、ion vulnerability to climate change and enhancing adaptive capacity.Considering the quality and characteristics of the planning context as inputs for a strong baseline.Understanding the extent to which ecosystem services have been considered in the adaptation planning process.Identifying the factors
298、 that may lead to adaptive capacity weaknesses and how they have been addressed in current efforts.Designing M&E systems that include short-,medium-,and long-term indicators and operate at the appropriate scale to assess project effectiveness and changes in vulnerability.Ensuring that the selected/d
299、eveloped indicators directly address specific drivers of climate-related vulnerability(sensitivity,adaptive capacity,or exposure)identified during the planning stages as being linked to ecosystems and/or ecosystem services.Involving local communities in the monitoring process to enhance efficiency,l
300、ocal capacity,and learning.Additionally,M&E systems should be designed to cover a sufficient period of time and operate at the appropriate scale to assess the project or programmes effectiveness.Ensuring the possibility of replicating and scaling up initiatives and projects.3.3.8.1 Types of indicato
301、rsEbA indicators can be classified as 1)process-based indicators(input and output indicators)and 2)performance-based indicators(outcome and impact measurement).Moreover,there are fundamental criteria to consider in the process of identifying and selecting indicators relevant to EbA.These criteria ar
302、e listed below.Identification of indicators that reflect the resilience of all components of the human-environment system and the interconnections between them.Selection of commonly shared indicators that can be measured and monitored similarly within a specific area and across regions.Inclusion of
303、indicators that reflect the health of the ecosystem(i.e.indicators that illustrate the state and aspects of biodiversity).Inclusion of indicators that can measure the ecosystem services provided to vulnerable populations(i.e.indicators that quantify the benefits derived by humans from ecosystems and
304、 their services).Integration of tools to assess the vulnerability and adaptability,in terms of quantity or type,of local human communities after implementing awareness initiatives.The selected indicators should allow for reporting at various levels(national,regional,international)and across differen
305、t national levels.A prerequisite for ecosystem-based indicators is that they relate to spatial reference data and/or policies for a specific area or ecosystem.Indicators and goals should be framed considering any changes that could take place over time.Location:Bahrain and QatarExisting Ecosystems:c
306、oastal,marine,and urban ecosystemsClimate Change Challenges:SLR,flooding,increased groundwater salinity,water securityImplemented EbA Approach:Afforestation and mangrove plantingBox 5:Afforestation and mangrove planting to address the risk of sea level riseFigure 15:Map of Bahrain and Qatar44|Guidel
307、ines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|45 Both Qatar and Bahrain are highly susceptible to the impacts of climate change,including increased temperatures and SLR.Bahrains low-lying coastal areas,where most of its
308、 population resides,are particularly vulnerable,with projections suggesting that a 1.5-metre SLR would submerge 27 per cent of its total area.Projections also show that a 0.5-metre increase will inundate 50 per cent of wetlands,while an increase of 1.5 metres will cost Bahrain 75 per cent of its wet
309、lands.SLR of 5 metres will have a severe impact on most of the Kingdom of Bahrain and lead to the full submersion of Bahrain International Airport,in addition to affecting 74 per cent of urban areas.Similarly,Qatar is among the ten countries most affected by SLR,with over 18 per cent of its land are
310、a low enough to be permanently inundated in the case of a SLR of 5 metres.Additionally,SLR will increase groundwater salinity levels,threatening water security.According to the definition of EbA,interventions should be embedded in a wider adaptation plan.In Bahrain,national efforts to mitigate and a
311、dapt to the impacts of climate change,including SLR,have been in place since 1994.Several measures have been considered in development sectors including the application of strategic environmental assessment(SEA)by relevant competent authorities in all development projects to ensure compliance with e
312、nvironmental standards(UNESCO,2021).Furthermore,the government of Bahrain has launched Bahrains National Afforestation Plan,which aims to double the current number of trees and quadruple mangrove trees by the year 2035.This involves several initiatives and policies that would help increase the tree
313、cover in Bahrain from 1.8 million to 3.6 million by 2035 through the cultivation of salinity and drought-tolerant trees compatible with the local climate.It also includes the implementation of a mangrove planting project,the Mangrove Cultivation Project,in several locations as a protection measure a
314、gainst SLR in coastal areas(Ministry of Municipalities Affairs and Agriculture,Kingdom of Bahrain,n.d.;UNESCO,2021).In the context of this plan,UN-Habitat,in partnership with FAO,is implementing the“Building Greener and Sustainable Cities”project in Bahrain.The project aims to promote the transition
315、 to climate-resilient urban ecosystems as well as raise the awareness and build the capacities of relevant stakeholders(United Nations,2023).Other suggested EbA solutions:Since both Qatar and Bahrain share comparable climatic conditions and are vulnerable to similar impacts of climate change,the sug
316、gested EbA approaches in the context of Qatar are like the ones implemented in Bahrain,including:Application of SEA by relevant authorities in all development projects to protect ecosystems.Implementation of a mangrove cultivation project in several locations as a protection measure for coastal area
317、s Figure 16:Recreational activities around mangroves in Bahrain Credits Hady Elcott 2023Figure 17:Afforestation efforts in Bahrain Credits Hady Elcott 202346|Guidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|47 4.1 In
318、troductionWhen planning for urban Ecosystem-based Adaptation,it is essential to recognize that no single overarching formula exists.Rather,EbA must be considered context-specific.EbAs operationalization in urban areas requires the establishment of efficient and coherent cooperation and coordination
319、efforts across different sectors and levels of governance and society.It necessitates the development of innovative solutions to problems that exist in a constrained and often challenging context.Crucially,it requires a comprehensive understanding of the objectives,costs and benefits,socioecological
320、 drivers,interdependencies,and potential outcomes of this approach.The Arab region is particularly susceptible to climate change,with urban areas showing increased vulnerability due to existing inadequacies in resource management and urban planning.Enhancing the resilience of both the population and
321、 the ecosystem services they depend on can be achieved by integrating EbA approaches into policy processes and urban planning.This document provides steps for climate risk assessment,stakeholder engagement,and for identifying and prioritizing EbA options.Nevertheless,it would be beneficial to also e
322、laborate on specific considerations to guarantee EbAs effective integration into subnational and local policymaking.In a notable example of successful integration,several countries in the region are increasingly incorporating mangrove restoration into their urban planning strategies as a means of ad
323、vancing environmental sustainability.These countries employ a variety of mechanisms to achieve this integration,including urban zoning and land-use policies that reserve areas for mangroves,rigorous coastal and environmental regulations,and public-private partnerships that engage developers in resto
324、ration efforts.National environmental strategies,exemplified by those of Saudi Arabia and the UAE,provide the necessary policy support and funding to guide these efforts.Indeed,Bahrain places a significant emphasis on mangrove conservation and restoration within its National Biodiversity Strategy an
325、d Action Plan(NBSAP).Similarly,Oman incorporates mangrove conservation and restoration initiatives into its National Strategy for Sustainable Development.Furthermore,Kuwaits Environment Authority provides dedicated funding for projects incorporating mangrove restoration into coastal management plans
326、.Additionally,community engagement plays a crucial role,with public awareness campaigns and local involvement ensuring the long-term success of these projects.Chapter 4Recommendations for Operationalizing the GuidelinesGuidelines for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab Region|49 48|Guidelin
327、es for Urban Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in the Arab RegionUrban Ecosystem.Illustration by Omnia MoussaWhile presented individually for clarity,the following recommendations should be considered as an integrated whole.Depending on the context,they can and should be applied together to achieve optimal
328、 results.4.2 Enhancing capacity building for EbAIt is essential to develop the capacity for EbA across all sectors,including the public and private sectors,and civil society,with tailored approaches for urban planning.The objective of capacity building for EbA is to enhance awareness and address any
329、 potential knowledge gaps in the policymaking process for EbA.This can be achieved by establishing an evidence base to substantiate the benefits of implementing an ecosystem-based approach to urban adaptation through scientific research,vulnerability assessments,and leveraging traditional and local
330、knowledge into modern innovative approaches for urban adaptation.This can then be disseminated to policymakers,local governments,and urban planners to inform their decision-making and planning processes.Such an approach requires efficient mechanisms for the proper management and integration of knowl
331、edge.Capacity building can be further enhanced by facilitating more effective interdisciplinary stakeholder engagement,such as involving academia or concerned private and civil society stakeholders.This will ensure the development of transparent,accountable,culturally appropriate,and equitable outco
332、mes,which could contribute to the building of trust in governmental and institutional structures.Furthermore,it is of vital importance that new institutional and governance mechanisms are implemented to ensure flexibility in the policy process and implementation of EbA approaches,and to account for
333、the ever-changing context of climate change adaptation.4.3 Strategic long-term planning and resource managementLong-term planning for EbA is essential to ensure that adaptation measures deliver sustainable benefits over time.It allows for effective adaptation to any new future scenarios resulting from climate change or urban growth,and ensures that strategies remain relevant or flexible as conditi
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